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THE LITERARY STYLE OF 
THE PROPHETIC BOOKS 
OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE 

BY 

DAVID HENRY KYES, Ph.D. 




BOSTON 

RICHARD G. BADGER 

THE GORHAM PRESS 



COPYEIGHT, I919, BY RiCHARD G. BADGER 



All Rights Reserved 

5 






Ml 2b l^r^ 



Made in the United States of America 



The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. 



©C).A529369 



^ 



TO 

MY WIFE 

COMPANION, HELPER, INSPIRATION 
I DEDICATE THIS BOOK 



JUL kb IbiB 



PREFATORY NOTE 

THE object of the following Dissertation is 
to examine and discuss the literary setting 
and the essential qualities of the style of the 
Prophetic Books in the English Bible with special 
reference to Rhetoric and Figures of Speech. 

The basis of the study is the text of the standard 
Authorized King James Version of 1611, as orig- 
inally printed. It is followed in all respects, only 
the poetic passages are so arranged as to bring 
out the rhythm and versification. 

The scope of this Dissertation does not include 
the discussion of questions of Higher Criticism. 
Such questions are treated only to the extent that 
seems to be necessary to a correct understanding 
of literary structure and style. 

Although not especially prepared for a text in 
Bible study, this book is admirably suited as a 
guide in the study of the Prophecies. With the 
help of the foot-notes such a study might be ex- 
tended almost indefinitely. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Introduction 9 

I The Growth and Decline of Prophetic 

Power and Influence 15 

II Personality and Work of the Prophet 27 

III The Genius and Philosophy of Hebrew 

Expression 34 

IV Isaiah, His Times and Style .... 49 
V Jeremiah and Lamentations .... 75 

Lamentations 92 

VI EZEKIEL AND DaNIEL 99 

Ezekiel 99 

Daniel ill 

VII HosEA, Joel AND Amos ii6 

Hosea . . ii6 

Joel .... 122 

Amos . 127 

VIII Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum . 132 

Obadiah 132 

Jonah 134 

Micah 135 

Nahum 142 

IX Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zecha- 

RIAH, MaLACHI 146 

Habakkuk 146 

7 



8 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

IX Zephaniah 150 

Haggai 153 

Zechariah 156 

Malachi ' . . 162 

Conclusion 167 

Bibliography 171 

Index 177 



INTRODUCTION 

THE ancestry and environment of its writers 
profoundly influence a nation's literary prod- 
uct. Geographical, historical and political con- 
ditions, early home-life, mental tendencies and re- 
ligious conceptions, affect a man's writings. A 
course in the history and geography of a nation 
very appropriately precedes the study of its litera- 
ture. 

Bed-rock principles Tevealed to them by God 
were the basis of the work of the Old Testament 
Prophets. In rearing the superstructure, how- 
ever, environment profoundly modified results. 
The cloudless skies, the rugged contour of the 
country, the simple pursuits of the people, fur- 
nished suggestions for the multitude of figures of 
speech found in the prophetical writings. The 
interests of God's Kingdom were constantly on 
their minds. Hence a river, lake, mountain, for- 
est, a threshing floor or a stable might be used to 
vivify their ideas. 

The history of the literature of any nation 
teaches us that a strong national life has always 
provoked a potent literature. This is seen espe- 



10 Introduction 

dally in the writings immediately following a suc- 
cessful war in which a nation has demonstrated 
its prowess and virility. The Augustan Age in 
Rome, following a series of military victories, con- 
tains the names of Horace, Ovid and Virgil. This 
marked the acme of Roman national life. The 
splendid nationality of England in the Age of 
Elizabeth was not entirely the result of successes 
in war. Discoveries, the Reformation and the 
Renaissance attested, however, to the fact. The 
names of Shakespeare, Spenser, Bacon and Sid- 
ney are the sufficient guarantee of a great litera- 
ture at this time. In America the early colonies 
contained but few good writers. Other work 
seemed more important than that of literature. 
There were homes and a living to make and an 
independence to win. After 1820, when the idea 
of nationality was well established, the names of 
Longfellow, Emerson, Lowell and Motley ap- 
peared and with them a truly great and profound 
literature. 

The rule illustrated above obtained with the 
Hebrew people. When a strong national life was 
anticipated and seemed sure, an Isaiah could ex- 
claim in rapturous periods. A righteous and pow- 
erful king with even a pious minority in power, in- 
spired the hope necessary to a great literature. 
During many such periods the national life hung 
in the balance. It had no better barometer than 



Introduction 1 1 

the writings of a given period. The personality 
of the men coupled with social and political con- 
ditions were responsible for the weeping of Jere- 
miah as well as for the denunciations of Amos 
and Nahum. The lesser value of some of the 
minor prophecies is closely connected with the 
decline of Israel's national life. Haggai and 
Zephaniah rendered an abiding service to their 
constituency. This service hardly compares with 
the literary productions of Isaiah or Ezekiel. 
Most of the Prophets had a keen perception of 
the relation between faith and obedience and true 
success. This was not as W. Robertson Smith 
points out ^ the faith and obedience of an Individ- 
ual but that of a nation. The Idea of individual- 
ity had not been worked out. One of the good 
effects of the Captivity and the breaking up of the 
nation was to promote this. It becomes prominent 
in the later Prophetic Writings and is a marked 
feature of Christ's utterances. 

The Prophets were of the type of men to be 
profoundly moved by duty and a high sense of 
responsibility. As they were not merely pre- 
dictors, but men who felt that they were the very 
mouth-pieces of God at an important epoch of the 
world's history, all their utterances were of a high 
order. The fate of millions was to be guided 
by their Writings. How Important that their ex- 

* "Prophets of Israel," p. 49 ff. 



12 Introduction 

pression be the best of which they were capable. 

The main difference between the true and the 
false Prophet was in the matter of conscientious- 
ness in their work. The former was bent upon 
giving the people what God taught whether ac- 
ceptable to them or not ; the latter was bent upon 
pleasing the people and getting a following at all 
costs. The former had a high and holy purpose 
and worked to a plan ; the latter used profession- 
alism and necromancy to gain a hearing. The 
work of the former abides in noble records, while 
that of the latter has been relegated to the oblivion 
which it deserves. 

A final modifying literary force is found in the 
mental temperament of the Prophets. The men- 
tality of each was sufficiently cogent to give him a 
distinct personality. The message of each Prophet 
bears the stamp of a man. If some of their work 
was done in a state of ecstasy, it is no more than 
we might expect. Religious principles instead of 
being old and well-established, as with us, were 
new and untried. Men who lived near enough 
to God in these early days to know His will and 
receive an impelling force from His character, 
had a right to become ecstatic. Each true Prophet 
carried a giant's load of responsibility and work, 
and often the security of a Kingdom rested upon 
him. 



THE LITERARY STYLE OF THE PROPHETIC 
BOOKS OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE 



The Literary Style of the Prophetic 
Books of the English Bible 

CHAPTER I 

THE GROWTH AND DECLINE OF PROPHETIC POWER 
AND INFLUENCE 

THE growth and the development of the He- 
brew Prophet occupies a unique place in the 
religious life of the world. He was not as he is 
too often regarded, an impracticable, visionary, 
unearthly being. He was a part of our common 
humanity, with its points of weakness as well as 
of strength. If the age in which he lived had high 
regard for signs, omens, visions and dreams, his 
work was modified thereby. Only the fact of his 
walking closely with God and being very seriously 
impressed with the importance of his work kept 
him at times at his great task. His usefulness 
and influence with the common people were en- 
hanced by the fact that, although he was a man, 
somehow the will of God was communicated to 
him. 

Abraham, Moses and Samuel were the first 
15 



1 6 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

great Prophets of the chosen people. They had 
the trustful obedience and mighty faith which were 
the essential requisites of a Prophet. In the time 
of Samuel, however, the Seer held an important 
place. It has been claimed that the Seer repre- 
sented the Godward side of revelation, perceiving 
or receiving the truth, while the Prophet repre- 
sented the manward or uttering side.^ This seems 
debatable. Surely none could be better judges of 
the time and manner of delivering truth, than 
those whose minds were filled with emotions while 
receiving it. 

In the later monarchy the Seer was displaced 
almost entirely by the Prophet. The foregoing 
would establish the truth that if he was not the 
forerunner of the Prophet their works would over- 
lap only a few centuries.^ 

The difference between the Seer and the 
Prophet was one of sacredness and comprehen- 
siveness. In the early history of prophecy, before 
the scope of the Prophet's work was well-defined, 
the Seer flourished with his interpretations of 
signs and omens. He, however, did not have 
the statesman's grasp, the religious enthusiast's 
mysticism, or the Prophet's penetration.^ 

From the time of the later monarchy onward 

^ Schaff-Herzog Ency. of Religious Knowledge. Art "Proph- 
ecy." 

^Idem. 

^Hastings Bible Die. Vol. IV, p. io8— "The date when the 
change of name from Seer to Prophet took place cannot be 
ascertained and the change itself is difficult to explain," 



Prophetic Power and Influence 17 

the name Prophet became common. Several ele- 
ments contributed to make the Prophets and their 
work of more than passing importance : 

(a) They were called generally against their 
wills. Although the pressure brought to bear 
upon them was moral and spiritual rather than 
physical, they could not but feel that it came from 
God.^ 

(b) The Prophet is the instrument through 
whom God reveals His will to Israel. (Jer. 1 17, 
Ex. IV 115.) God talks with him (Jer. XXIII: 
18, Ezek. 111:4) and reveals His purpose to him. 
He opens the Prophet's mouth (Ezek. 111:27), 
answers his questions (Hab. II: iff) and fills him 
with fury and indignation.^ 

(c) Men in the time of the Prophets, as well 
as to-day, believed that there was a Supreme Be- 
ing; that the Supreme Being communicated with 
men; that these communications were not carried 
on indiscriminately but with certain men chosen 
of God, who felt it their duty to communicate 
them to others.^ 

These beliefs came to have a wonderful influ- 
ence in the development of Prophecy. The "true 
Prophet realized when he had received special 
directions from God. This gave him confidence 
in the declaration of his message. He felt that 

* SchaflF-Herzog Ency. of Religious Knowledge. Art. "Proph- 
et." 
''Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature." 
'Hastings' Bible Die. Vol. IV, p. 107. 



1 8 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

he could make no mistake for he was uttering the 
words of Jehovah who is infallible. (Amos IV :2, 
Hos. V:9, Is. XVII :24, Jer. I:ii, Ezek. XII: 
28.)"^ He ascribed all extraordinary manifesta- 
tions to God, as well as the impulse to deliver or 
withhold the truth received. When this belief, 
because of miracles performed by the Prophets 
and the fulfillment of Prophecy, came to be shared 
by the common people, it gave the Prophets tre- 
mendous power. The word of the Prophets came 
to have such energy due to this cause that their 
pronounced woes brought speedy dismay to 
Israel. (Zech. 1:6.)^ The Almighty slays or 
hews by the Prophets, and kingdoms are pulled 
down or set up by them (Jer. I:io) ; their special 
province is to deal with those not amenable to 
human authority. No matter whether the high 
or low are disturbed in their wickedness, the inex- 
orable righteousness of God must be maintained. 
In contrast to the false Prophets, the true 
Prophets were men of the highest honor. They 
felt that they held a sacred position between men 
and God and, like Jeremiah, would suffer intensely 
rather than violate this trust. In Amos III ly, we 
read: 

"Surely the Lord God will do nothing but he reveal- 
eth his secret unto his serv^ants the prophets." Con- 

■^Sec. I, Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature." 



Prophetic Power and Influence 19 

ceming God's guidance we read in Hosea XII :io, — "I 
have also spoken by the prophets and I have multiplied 
visions and used similitudes by the ministry of the 
prophets"; also in Hosea XII 113, — "And by a prophet 
the Lord brought Israel out of Egypt and by a prophet 
was he preserved." 

Realizing their great power, and being filled 
with a peculiar sense of their high and holy mis- 
sion both to God and men, the true Prophets re- 
frained from no word or deed that would help 
mankind. They might forego social pleasure ( Jer. 
XV 17) or family life (Jer. XIII :2) or even 
marry a harlot (Hosea 1:2) if God so ordered. 
Because of this complete abandonment to God, 
He used them mightily, not only in their own 
age, but through their utterances in every age. 

The fundamental idea that God had made a 
covenant with His chosen people — Israel — and 
called them to be separate from heathen nations, 
the Prophets would not and could not forget.^ 
From time to time the idea obtained in Israel that 
God was beholden to her; that He could not ac- 
complish His purposes without her and that His 
honor must be sacrificed if she did not exist or 
prosper.^^ This belief was the cause perhaps of 
her yielding so often to her besetting sin and 
running after heathen customs and superstitions. 
She did not at this time seem to have a proper 

' See A. B. Davidson, "Old Testament Prophecy," p. 104. 
" See Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature." 



20 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

conception of the blessings and benefits to be ob- 
tained by obedience to her covenant with God. 
The distinctive and important work of the Proph- 
ets is done at this point. ^^ They had the correct 
conception, that, for Israel's good, God wished 
that she would so conduct herself that He could 
accomplish His purposes for the world and hu- 
manity through her. They saw that God's purpose 
was to develop the ethical and spiritual ideas of 
the world through her. Yet they did not feel that 
God was beholden to the Israelites but that He 
had many means whereby He might carry out 
His far-reaching purposes if they were recreant 
to their part of the covenant.^ ^ The Prophets 
made themselves unpopular by declaring that when 
there was any estrangement between the Israelites 
and God, the Israelites were at fault. Unpopu- 
larity, however, did not turn them from what they 
believed to be their duty. Nor did they become 
narrow in the performance of it. On the other 
hand, they were ever engaged in modifying and 
adapting the old truths to new conditions and 
circumstances. They were constantly standing for 
the advance of everything that strengthened the 
personal and national life of Israel.^ ^ By living 
close to God and studying institutions of the past, 

" See Expositors Bible, Vol. I. Minor Prophets, p. 44-50. 
Also Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature." 
" Ibid. "Minor Prophets." Vol. I, p. 50. 
"See Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature." 



Prophetic Power and Influence 21 

they were able to read the signs of the times far 
in advance of the common people. They saw 
that God's ultimate goal was to beget in the minds 
of His people high spiritual and ethical standards. 
This they constantly maintained. Even when they 
were successful in their undertakings, the true 
Prophets did not depart from their one work of 
keeping God and His standards in the forefront. 
They felt that God had minute charge of the af- 
fairs of this world, and the only true success for 
themselves and Israel was in following His guid- 
ance minutely. To aid Israel in doing this, they 
aimed constantly to eradicate heathenism and 
heathenish conceptions from her mind. 

The Prophets were an effective force in the 
centralization of the national life of Israel. In 
the time of the early Judges there was no Israelit- 
ish nation. Everything seemed to be in a state 
of chaos. It was easier for the Israelite to run 
away from home than to remain there.^* Under 
such circumstances the Prophet by emphasizing the 
unity of God, and loyalty to Him, aided in chang- 
ing the popular tendency from centrifugal to cen- 
tripetal.^^ In a few centuries Israel was trans- 
formed from a wandering horde to a monarchy. 

For a time, when the Prophetic movement was 
new, men of a practical turn of mind conceived 

" See Expositors Bible. "Judges," p. 46 ff. 
^ See Ency. Britannica. Art. "Prophet." 



22 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

the idea of having schools of the Prophets. Elisha, 
e. g.j felt that the affairs of Israel demanded 
schools of this character.^^ 

References to these schools are found in 2 
Kings IV: 1-3 8, 2 Kings V:22, VI :i, and 2 Kings 
IX: I. The mention of these schools occurs first 
in I Sam. X:5. Such schools existed down to the 
time of Amos. Their popularity seems to have 
declined as the work of the Prophet became more 
intensely spiritual.^ ^ They were regarded as mak- 
ing the work semi-professional in character, thus 
tending to its degradation. 

The earlier Prophets were content to deliver 
their messages orally.^ ^ The later ones, beginning 
with Amos, felt that they should record their ad- 
monitions. When Israel was younger and the 
novelty of Prophecy was not worn off, it seemed 
to be easy for the Israelites to turn the Prophetic 
injunctions into deeds. The efforts of the later 
Prophets were not thus rewarded. This with the 
desire to transmit their work to posterity may 
have been the cause of their resorting to the pen. 
Budde agreeing with Kuenen says on the subject 
of written Prophecy: "It must have been their 
very ill success, the unbelief of the people, that 

" J. G. Herder holds that schools of the Prophets were 
wisely established by Samuel. Vol. II, p. 217-218. 

" See Schaff-Herzog, Ency. of Religious Knowledge. Art. 
"Prophets." 

^* See Schaff-Herzog, Ency. of Religious Knowledge. Art. 
"Hebrew Literature"; Hastings' Bible Die. Vol. II, p. 572. 



Prophetic Power and Influence 23 

above all else compelled them to resort to the 
pen. The great mass of the Prophets had no such 
need, for their words were turned at once into 
deeds as men obeyed them. But the true Prophets 
who had no successes in the present to record 
transmitted their oracles to posterity that there 
at least they might awaken a response or at any 
rate receive the acknowledgment that their con- 
tents were true."^^ 

Coming to the time of Amos we have an ad- 
vance in Prophetic power and influence, although 
at that time many of the Prophets had given up 
hope of saving Israel as a nation.^^ Spiritual life 
and personal righteousness are emphasized. To 
the person of limited vision God's purposes seem 
to be defeated. Jeremiah especially lamented over 
the sins of Israel and her failure to repent. He 
feels that she has thrown away her last hope. 
Subsequent events showed that his fears were well 
founded. (Micah 1:4-9.) 

If, however, national righteousness was on the 
wane, personal religion and spiritual faith were 
rapidly forging ahead. This fact is revealed in 
the Prophecies of Isaiah and especially in the 
Psalms. Had Israel remained intact as a strongly 
centralized government, those who composed the 
nation would not willingly have gone to other 

"Ency. Biblica. Art. "Prophetic Literature," col. 3855. 
^*' See Ency. Britannica. Art. "Prophecy." 



24 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

nations to disseminate the spiritual truths for the 
purpose for which God had raised up the Hebrew 
nation. With the national life destroyed and 
great emphasis placed on personal righteousness, 
when the tribes were scattered among the king- 
doms of that day, God's plan for the spreading 
of righteousness was consummated in the largest 
manner. (Is. LX-LXIII.) There resulted also an 
added emphasis on the personal life preparing the 
minds of men for the coming of Him who said : 

"Of how much more value is a man than a sheep?" 
and "What shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole 
world and lose his own soul?" 

In the later Prophets the Spirit appears as a 
permanent possession. (Is. LXI.) He comes 
now as a constant enlightenment acting through 
the leaders of Israel. (Is. LIX:2i, Hag. 11:5-) 
He is variously designated, and divers terms are 
used to express His relation to the Prophets. 
He "was on them," "rested on them," "fell upon 
them," "laid violent hold upon them," "moved 
them" and took hold of them. This leads us 
to the next statement, "that the Spirit was re- 
garded as something external to man which was 
given him by God," and hence a peculiar impor- 
tance was attached to the truths gained through 
Him. 

The influence and importance of the Prophets 



Prophetic Power and Influence 25 

continued to increase until the time of Isaiah and 
Micah. By their time the excitement so common 
to early religious movements had largely subsided, 
and Old Testament Prophecy was at its most 
useful and potent stage. Some excellencies in 
Prophetic style may be observed in the writings of 
Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk, but these were 
brief and did not have the reach and power of the 
utterances of Isaiah. 

The best things must die after they have served 
their purpose or when conditions so change that 
their usefulness is past. We have seen how the 
Prophets were faithful in denouncing sin and how 
they at times hoped against hope that Israel might 
turn from her wickedness and remain a perma- 
nently righteous nation.^^ In the time of Amos 
and Hosea, however, optimism had waned en- 
tirely, and their messages were pessimistic. The 
Prophets had lost confidence in the Israelites. 
Israel as a nation must fall, but for the individual 
Hebrew there will be the opportunity for a richer 
personal life and as a result Israel would wield a 
wider influence after the Captivity.^^ The per- 
manence of Israel as a nation was not so important 
as the dissemination of the fundamental Israelit- 
ish idea of a universal kingdom of righteousness. 

The success of the Prophets prepared the way 

'' See Ency. Biblica, Col. 3865. 

^ Is. XI: II flF, Ezek. VI: 8-9, Micah IV- V, Jer. XXIII: 3-6, 
2 Kings XIX: 30-31. 



26 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

for the decline of their work. When the reforms 
which they had suggested were adopted, or the 
sins which they had denounced became unpopular, 
the reason for their existence was not so evident. 
The reign of every good king helped their work to 
be a success and lessened the reason for the Proph- 
ets' existence. They had been faithful and God 
had approved their efforts. Some like Jonah ^^ 
might have felt aggrieved when they seemed to 
be compromised on account of the repentance of 
the people. Considering those early times, they 
had dealt thoroughly with the great questions of 
man's destiny. It remained for others to amplify 
and make new applications and combinations of 
their teachings. 

"See Jonah III:io and IV :i. 



CHAPTER II 

PERSONALITY AND WORK OF THE PROPHET 

IT will help us to understand the literary struc- 
ture and style of the Prophecies if we keep in 
mind that the Prophets were men. There have 
been many theories ^ of inspiration. None of 
these, however, will account fully for the work and 
writings of the Prophets. The feelings, emotions 
and entire personality of a writer enter into his 
style. Instead of dealing with doctrines, the Proph- 
ets dealt with Jehovah and His will concerning the 
Israelites. This made the tasks of the Prophets 
similar. They are to teach men how to find God, 
and to declare His purpose beforehand. Hence 
they have been compared to watchmen. Men who 
by extraordinary sagacity perceive the impending 
storm and tell how to evade it.^ 

In considering this subject Davidson, who treats 
the matter very practically, says that the important 
question at this time is, "In what condition was 
the mind of the Prophet when he received the 

^ See A. B. Davidson, "Old Testament Prophecy," p. 132 f., 
also Ency. Biblica, Art. 'Trophet." 

*See Ency. Biblica, Art. "Prophetic Literature." 

27 



2 8 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

truth ? What was the state of mind that the Spirit 
craved for his work?" Because ecstasy and vision, 
were common among oriental peoples some have 
held that an ecstatic condition of mind was neces- 
sary for revelations from God. This, however, 
is not true, for, in the case of Peter, God linked 
a vision of truth of supreme importance to the 
Gentile race, to an absorbing physical craving.^ 
It is claimed on good authority * that critical 
exegesis does not favor the view that the greater 
Prophets considered ecstatic states the necessary 
guarantee of a divine revelation. Yet these states 
were by no means uncommon, for each of the 
Major Prophets refers to them. (See Jer. XV: 17, 
Is. VIII :i I, Ezek. VIII:iff, Xliiff, XXXVII: 
iff.) The foregoing leads us to question the state- 
ments of Gardiner: "He (the prophet) was pos- 
sessed by the hand of the Lord, and the words 
which emerged from his lips were the immediate 
utterance of God." "The man who utters them 
(the oracles of the prophets) feels that the words 
spring from his lips completely formed without 
volition of his own." ^ 

If the Prophets were machines or passive recep- 
tacles of the truth or perhaps media through which 
the truth passed, to attribute a vigorous style to 
one and an inferior style to another is irrelevant. 

'Acts X:ii flF. 

*See Ency. Biblica, Art. "Prophetic Literature." 

^The Bible as English Literature, p. 245-246. 



Personality and Work of the Prophet 29 

But this is not the case. It might seem to be in 
some instances, but Davidson holds that "the pro- 
phetic state was one of high mental activity going 
through various grades of intensity and of that 
kind of activity called intuition." ^ 

Some light may be shed on this phase of the 
question by considering our own mental states un- 
der differing conditions. When we are seized by 
a new idea or some different phase of an old one, 
a mental glow or deep emotion often sweeps over 
the entire being. Again when the mind is intense, 
or in a wrapt spiritual or mental state, it is often 
unconscious of external surroundings. 

Language concerning the subconscious, hypno- 
tism, the splitting of a personality and suggestion, 
is common to-day. The fields of the conscious 
and subconscious mind are being explored as never 
before. People are finding that they have more 
in common with the spiritual than thdy onice 
thought."^ 

A person in the hypnoidal condition may have 
ideas introduced into the mind that would other- 
wise be impossible.^ The disagreeable habit of 
absentmindedness is often the result of intense 
absorbing thought. Even as high an authority as 
Quackenbos ^ would make the transliminal self 

"A. B. Davidson, "Old Testament Prophecy," p. 119. 
'See I. Coriat, "Abnormal Psychology" ; also J. D. Quack- 
enbos, "Hypnotic Therapeutics." 
^ See Psychotherapeutics, "A symposium." 
°J. D. Quackenbos, "Hypnotic Therapeutics." 



30 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

the direct intermediary between the soul and God. 
Dr. Dick makes the difference Between the con- 
scious and subconscious the same as between Paul's 
''mind of the flesh" and ''mind of the Spirit." ^^ 
Prof. James says, "It must be admitted, therefore, 
that in certain persons, at least, the total possible 
consciousness may be split into two parts which 
co-exist, but mentally ignore each other and share 
the objects of knowledge between them." ^^ Many 
striking illustrations may be produced to show 
the unmistakable workings of the subconscious 
mind. 

If the success of God's work in any given period 
or locality does, as we believe, depend upon the 
perfection, the intensity, the enthusiasm of the 
souls through whom He works, it is fair to sup- 
pose that at least every natural means will be 
used by Him to prepare suitable personalities to 
do Prophetic work. It is a noticeable fact that 
no matter in what manner or condition of mind 
the Prophets received their truths, they were able 
to reproduce them. This indicates that these 
truths were not received in a passive, mechanical 
manner. This, however, does not militate against 
the idea of dreams as a condition of receiving the 
truth.^^ People in our own day have accom- 
plished mental gymnastics in dreams that were 
impossible in waking hours. 

^^ S. M. Dick, "Psychotherapy." 
"Quoted in Dick's "Psychotherapy." 
" See S. M. Dick, "Psychotherapy." 



Personality and Work of the Prophet 31 

Davidson says that the dream is the extreme 
illustration of the Prophetic gift. Dreams were 
not considered as essential by the Prophets them- 
selves. It is significant that as prophecy declined 
in the times of Daniel and Zechariah there was 
a revival of the vision idea.^^ 

Let us then make the broad statement that the 
Prophets manifested every kind and grade of men- 
tal activity. It went through all the various de- 
grees of intensity; both the reproductive and cre- 
ative powers of the mind were alert. The ideas 
and conditions that move men to-day moved them. 
Causes produced the same effects in their lives 
that they would in ours. The very personality of 
the Prophet assumes energy and activity in soul 
and body; for God never gives an empty, inactive 
mind, or indolent body, a special call to work for 
Him. Because Isaiah communed often with God 
and felt his personal responsibility for the condi- 
tion of Israel, a call came to him.^* 

It may be questioned: Are we not seeking to 
explain away the supernatural element in Proph- 
ecy? Of what does the supernatural consist be- 
sides the power to deal with natural forces and 
energies in a way not thought of or not possible 
to mankind? Unthinking people take for granted 
that there can be no connection between the nat- 
ural and supernatural, while as a matter of fact 

"See A. B. Davidson, "Old Testament Prophecy," p. 135-136. 
"Is. VI:i-8. 



32 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

even "the commonest event is as supernatural in 
its causality as any miracle." ^^ 

The ideal Prophetic state was one of composure 
and calmness. Moses is a classical example of this 
in the Old Testament, while the Man of Galilee 
is the one first thought of in the New Testament. 
The former with his majestic dignity left his im- 
press on the world for all time, while the latter 
looked down the ages and without the least dis- 
turbance of spirit uttered those mighty truths, the 
importance of which only eternity will reveal. 

It may be quite safely stated that unprepared- 
ness is the cause of disturbances and commotion 
in the minds of those privileged with special re- 
ligious visitants.^ ^ Unless there is perfect and 
complete consecration to the Spirit, a greater or 
less degree of excitation is the result. The Spirit 
often raised a commotion in the breast of King 
Saul because there were things there incompatible 
with His working. 

In all these considerations a large allowance 
must be made for personal idiosyncrasies. A man 
like Hosea would be affected differently from one 
of such a temperament as Jeremiah's. Also dif^ 
ferent historical conditions would tend to develop 
different latent powers and possibilities. 

Only those ideas which are wrought in the mind 

^'^B. P. Bowne, ''Metaphysics," p. 289. 

" See A. B. Davidson, "Old Testament Prophecy," p. 126. 



Personality and Work of the Prophet 2>3 

under mental pressure affect mind in a powerful 
manner. Novels written at the rate of a thou- 
sand words a day with but little depth of thought 
or anguish of emotion seldom move the world. 
Not a single utterance coming from the depths of 
the heart that deals with life conditions will the 
world let die. For this reason the writings of 
Isaiah, as well as those of Shakespeare, Tennyson 
and Browning, abide. 



CHAPTER III 

THE GENIUS AND PHILOSOPHY OF HEBREW 
EXPRESSION 

IT was of supreme moment that the great 
truths of religion should be impressed on all 
minds, and it is significant that in the Bible may- 
be found the five important kinds of literature, — 
narrative, argument, poetry, history and prophecy. 
These classes of literature are not only found, 
but an excellent type of each class is frequently 
manifest. Says Lowth, "Whatever should be 
generally known and thoroughly remembered was 
written in an enchanting style which was adorned 
with figures and told in sentences at once compre- 
hensive and harmonious." ^ Biblical narrative, in 
which history and biography are prominent, states 
mighty truths in a simple, dignified manner to 
appeal to untutored and uncultured people. In 
advance of the simple historical writings are the 
poetical books, while in prophecy the highest de- 
velopment of Old Testament literature is reached.^ 

^R. Lowth, "Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews," p. 52. 
*J. H. Gardiner ("The Bible as Literature," p. 127) gives 
as a cause for the intensity so often seen in their writings, the 

34 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 35 

The Hebrew Prophets could produce a great 
literature because they were able to think deeply 
and conclusively on the common themes of life. 
This sense of the immediate presence of God 
made the common things of life peculiarly signifi- 
cant. It enabled them to get a fresh vision which 
is often necessary for the correct expression of or- 
dinary truths. "To the Hebrews the external 
universe is just a black screen concealing God. He 
is in all things yet distinct from them. He is in 
the cloud on the top of the mountain. The 
thunder is His voice. The sound of the mulberry 
trees is His 'going.' In the wind He is walking 
and working. At every step and in every circum- 
stance of life the Hebrews feel the surrounding, 
filling influence of God." ^ 

The Hebrews were peculiarly susceptible to the 
climate and scenery of their native country. The 
brooks of their land, the rich colors of their vege- 
tation and the stars of their evenings were all 
levers with which to draw from them grand fig- 
ures and images. Hills and valleys, rocks and 
mountains, forests and seas were to them more 
than common facts of every-day life. 

How much Mount Lebanon and Mount Carmel 

frequent and sudden changes from despair to hope. While 
the Israelites were prone to depart from the right, a portion 
of them were always thankful for deliverance from trouble. 
This spirit is seen especially in the language of the Psalms 
and renders many of them vivid and sublime. 
' G. Gilfillan, "Bards of the Bible," p. 23. 



36 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

have stood for in the Prophetic Writings. The 
former stood for strength and majesty, the latter 
for fertility and gracefulness.^ The one symbol- 
ized the state of the Church (Is. XXXVII 19, 
XXXV :2); Jerusalem (Is. XXXVII :24); the 
King of Assyria (Is. X:34) ; the other stood for 
wealth and beauty (Is. X:i8, Micah VII 114, Jer. 
IV:26). Rams, heifers and wild beasts are com- 
pared to her. 

The fact that the Hebrews were an agricultural 
and nomadic race deserves careful notice. This 
class of people has in every age been least suscep- 
tible to corruption. When we find, as in the case 
of the Hebrews, these traits coupled with a dig- 
nity of soul that would not allow them to consider 
any person disgraced although engaged in the most 
menial tasks, we have a race rapidly approaching 
perfection. In Hebrew history we frequently 
read of men being called from the plow to promi- 
nent positions. (Judges III 131, I Sam. IX 13, 
XI 15, Amos I:i, VII: 14-15.) Pursuits of this 
character furnished the leisure necessary for medi- 
tation which would not be possible to a commercial 
people. 

A race capable of being so deeply moved by the 
common and prosaic events of life would be thor- 
oughly stirred by extraordinary occurrences. The 
Hebrews were often inspired by a flood of waters. 

*See R. Lowth, "Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews," p. 84f. 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 37 

The irregular contour of the country made these a 
frequent occurrence. Water in any unusual form 
inspired them. A vast amount of rich and sub- 
lime literature is connected with the story of the 
flood. Even in our day the rainbow has a kind of 
sacredness because of its frequent association with 
the Biblical account of the flood. To the Hebrews 
it must have meant vastly more than it does to us. 
"The Lord," says David, "sitteth upon the 
floods." Isaiah speaks in the following beautiful 
language concerning the compassion of God: 

"This is as the waters of Noah unto me, for as I have 
sworn that the waters of Noah should go no more over 
the earth, so have I sworn not to be wroth with thee."^ 

To a nation essentially rehgious, the priest's at- 
tire and the pomp and solemnity of the temple 
sacrifices would make a powerful appeal. The 
marble and gold, the molten sea and bulls of brass, 
the overshadowed mercy-seat, — all these strangely 
moved the Hebrew imagination. Here is a suffi- 
cient foundation for the richest prose and most 
sublime poetry. (Is. LXI:io, Ps. LXVry, 
XCIIIii.) 

The Hebrews, however, were not compelled to 
rely on a few sources only for inspiration. The 
story of the Creation profoundly moved them as 
it has all noble souls. Says Jeremiah (Ch. IV:23- 
26):— 

"Is. LIV:9. 



38 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

I beheld the earth, and, lo, it was without form, and void ; 

And the heavens, and they had no light. 

I beheld the mountains, and, lo, they trembled. 

I beheld, and, lo, there was no man 

And all the birds of the heavens were fled. 

I beheld, and, lo, the fruitful place was a wilderness, 

And all the cities thereof were broken down 

At the presence of the Lord, and by His fierce anger. 

The story of the destruction of Sodom had a 
similar influence on the Hebrew mind by enforc- 
ing the idea of God's power and the certainty of 
the punishment of the wicked. Isaiah (Ch. 
XXXIV :8-io) gives in this connection the follow- 
ing glowing word-picture : 

For it is the day of the Lord's vengeance, 

And the year of recompense for the controversy of Zion. 

And the streams thereof shall be turned into pitch. 

And the dust thereof into brimstone, 

And the land thereof shall become burning pitch. 

It shall not be quenched night or day ; 

The smoke thereof' shall go up forever; 

From generation to generation it shall lie waste; 

None shall pass through it forever and ever. 

What poetic soul would not be fired by the 
story of the reception of the law by Moses on 
Sinai? "Sinai, dark and craggy, surrounded by a 
mantle of gloom — a fierce wind blowing around it 
— ^^torrents of rain descending — the lightnings of 
God playing on the summit — thunders crashing in- 
cessantly — and heard at intervals above all, the 
very voice of the Eternal — the millions of Israel- 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 39 

ites in the plain — and amid all this the one lonely- 
man going up the hill — the utterance of the law 
from amid the gloom — the seclusion of Jehovah 
for forty days on the top of the mount — the finger 
of God writing the precepts on the two tables — 
the passing of the Lord before Moses — ^the de- 
scent of the favored man, with his face shining out 
the tidings where he had been — all this was fitted 
to produce a peculiar and terrible poetry."^ The 
traditions of Horeb influenced most of the 
Prophets and, through their writings, the world. 

The expectation of the Messiah is another po- 
tent influence in Hebrew literature. The Messiah, 
or some one to do his work, had been expected so 
long; the wrongs against humanity that he was 
supposed to eradicate were so many that the belief 
in a coming Redeemer gave hope and inspiration 
to the most unpoetic. Infancy and childhood 
meant as much to the Hebrew then as at the pres- 
ent time. Any cradle might contain the Messiah. 
When He did come, a helpless child in a manger, 
some of the finest poetry was written. (See Luke 
1:46-55, 68-80.) 

The distinctive characteristics of Hebrew ex- 
pression were not entirely due, however, to the 
foregoing causes. These were the stimuli. How 
did the Hebrews express their thoughts with re* 
gard to them? 

•G. Gilfillan, "Bards of the Bible," p. 20. 



40 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

We observe, at first, an intense religious and 
ethical element running through the Old Testa- 
ment. This was the unifying agent making it the 
foundation of a great literature. One writer says, 
''From the Song of Deborah to Daniel the religion 
of Jehovah is the motive inspiring the writers."^ 
We observe further, "Religion, a particular faith 
developing in clearness, intensity, comprehensive- 
ness and sublimity, binds the whole into a unity 
so close that to eliminate a book or a part of a 
book is as impossible as undesirable." ^ 

The number and kind of words in the vocabu- 
lary of the Hebrews profoundly influenced their 
literature. Their vocabulary was not large, but ex- 
pressive. The Hebrews were not far removed 
from nature, and were not embarrassed with a 
plethora of words for every idea. They were not 
skilled in dialectics. The sentences expressive of 
their emotional and sensuous life had not suffered 
from analysis. The essential words of their life 
had not lost from dissection their rhythm and full- 
ness of meaning. Gardiner says, "In this early 
Hebrew poetry there is a wonderful spontaneity 
and freshness. It gives the impression of being 
born in the very heart of joy or grief or tri- 
umph."^ The Hebrew vocabulary contains but 
few abstract terms, while concrete expressions and 

' SchaflF-Herzog, "Ency. of Religious Knowledge," Art. "He- 
brew Literature." 
^Ibid. 
*"The Bible as Literature," p. 96. 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 41 

words pertaining to the world of sense and ma- 
terial things abound. The Hebrew's language, 
like his life, is one of vigor and energy. Sim- 
plicity and directness characterize his utterances. 
Figurative and pictorial elements render them in- 
teresting. 

The style is vigorous because the verb predomi- 
nates. Herder, who has made a careful study of 
the subject, says: "The verb is almost the whole 
of the language. In other words, everything lives 
and acts. The nouns are derived from verbs, and 
in a certain sense are still verbs. They are, as it 
were, living beings extracted and moulded while 
their radical source itself was in a state of living 
energy." ^^ This makes the Hebrew language rich 
in motion, transition and endurance and "vibrant 
with speaking, surging life." ^^ 

Another reason for the Hebrews' characteristic 
vigor of style is that they sought "to say the whole 
at once."^^ One word is frequently equivalent to 
four or five of ours. The important part of the 
word is in the center, while sonorous prefixes lend 
strength to the main idea.^^ 

We have already received glimpses of the He- 
brew's religious nature. It must not be forgotten 
that this was the all-absorbing element of his life. 
He saw religion and the sacred in everything. If 

^•'J. G. Herder, "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," p. 29. 

"^Ibid. ""Ibid. ''Ibid. 



42 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

the Hebrew was not religious he was nothing. 
Such a nature demanded and found a correspond- 
ing element in everything with which he associated. 
Every transaction, whether relating to either the 
civil or domestic life, must have the stamp of di- 
vine approval. 

Dramatic, and to a certain degree epic poetry, 
require the power of objectivity for their produc- 
tion. This the Hebrews possessed in a very lim- 
ited degree, for they were essentially introspective, 
subjective and individual. They desired and 
obtained a literature that might, through song 
and the dance, be intimately connected with their 
religion and family Hfe. The marriage of his 
daughter, the death of his son, or some national 
triumph would be to the Hebrew an occasion for 
poetry (Is. V:i-2, 2 Sam. 1:17-29, Jer. 1X117-20, 
Gen. IV:23, XVI :ii and XXV 123), and this 
must be lyric. Lowth says, "We may be indebted 
to them (the Hebrews) for the accurately meas- 
ured verses and feet. There is an inherent tend- 
ency in people to make the modulation of the 
language, the music of the voice and the motion of 
the body correspond."^* 

The beginnings of every literature worthy the 
name have been in poetical form. The early his- 
tory of the Persians and Arabs was in verse. The 
"Beowulf" of the Anglo-Saxons, the literature of 

""Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews," p. 52. 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 43 

the Trouveres and Troubadours of France, the 
"Cid" of Spain and the "Nibelungenlied" of 
Germany, were all in poetic form. The reason 
for this may be, as we have suggested in the case 
of the Hebrews, the close connection between 
music, religion and poetry. More than this, "in 
the early history of all peoples literary style must 
be such as to be able to reach the ear and the pas- 
sions while assisting the memory."^^ 

An important characteristic of Hebrew verse is 
what is termed parallelism, first discovered by 
Bishop Robert Lowth, in 1753. There is a sense 
connection or a rhyming of thought between the 
lines. 

Parallelism requires two clauses of approxi- 
mately, though not necessarily, the same length. 
"The two divisions of the verse confirm, elevate 
and strengthen each other. . . . One precept 
confirms the other as if the father were giving in- 
struction to his son and the mother repeated it. . . . 
It varies the precept and explains, or impresses 
it upon the heart."^^ "So soon as the heart gives 
way to emotions, wave follows upon wave, and 
that is parallelism. The heart is never exhausted; 
it has forever something new to say. So soon as 
the first wave has passed away, or broken itself 
upon the rocks, the second swells again and returns 

"R. Lowth, "Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews," p. 57. 

"J. G. Herder, "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," Vol. I, p. 39 ff. 



44 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

as before. This pulsation of nature, this breathing 
of emotion, appears in all the language of pas- 
sion."!^ 

In synonymous parallelism the sentiment of the 
first line is repeated or echoed in varied form in 
the second. The thought in the second line is not 
necessarily identical with that in the first, but is 
parallel to it : — 

Remember, O Lord, what is come upon us: 
Consider, and behold our reproach.^® 

Often the second member repeats only a part of 
the first: — 

Woe to them that join house to house, 
That lay field to field.^^ 

Sometimes the second member contains an expan^ 
sion of the first: — 

Thou wentest forth for the salvation of Thy people, 
Even for salvation v^^ith Thine Anointed ; 
Thou woundest the head of the house of the wicked, 
By discovering the foundation unto the neck.^^ 

In the second class, or anthithetic parallelism, 
the thought contained in the first line is confirmed 
by a contrasted thought in the second line. The 

"T. G. Herder, "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," Vol. I, p. 39 ff- 
"Lam. V:i. "Is. V:8. ^^^ Hab. III:i3. 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 45 

tenth to fifteenth chapters of Proverbs contain 
many examples of this class : — 

A wise son maketh a glad father: 

But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother.^^ 

Day unto day uttereth speech, 

And night unto night showeth knowledge.^^ 

Isaiah LXV:i3-i4 contains an excellent example 
of this class. An example of climactic parallelism, 
a variation of the antithetic, is as follows: — 

He hath cut off in his fierce anger all the horn of Israel : 
He hath drawn back his right hand from before the 

enemy, 
And he burned against Jacob like a flaming fire, which 

devoureth round about.^^ 

In the third class, or synthetic parallelism, the 
similarity of thought is not as evident as in the 
earlier classes. Form is prominent here rather 
than thought: — 

The mountains saw thee and they trembled: 
The overflowing of the water passed by.^* 
Our necks are under persecution: 
We labour, and have no rest.^^ 

Parallelism is an aid in making the Bible easy 
to translate and read. Here is found both fulness 



'^Prov. X:i. ^ Psalm XIX :2. ""Lam. 11:3. 

=^Hab. III:io. ^Lara. ¥15. 



46 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

and melody of expression. In this characteristic 
of Hebrew poetry, we find the Hebrews true to 
their tradition of keeping close to nature, for many 
have claimed to see parallelism in nature herself; 
e.g., winter and summer, day and night. 

A significant fact is that the Hebrew nature was 
narrow but intense. It has ever been noted for 
the power of penetration which belongs to single- 
ness of purpose. Possessed of high aspirations 
and noble emotions, these were not spoiled by 
being too extensive. The essential truth for 
which it stood, — the unity of God, — modified, uni- 
fied and deepened, not only the literary, but every 
other phase of its existence. 

A necessary requirement for the production of 
lasting poetry or any other abiding literature is 
deep emotion or agitation on the part of the writer. 
It is claimed ^^ that all great men of genius had 
emotional disturbances which affected their mental 
natures. Mohammed, Cromwell, Napoleon and 
Caesar are celebrated instances of this. Only 
those truths that are deeply felt and enthusiasti- 
cally expressed are capable of moving mankind 
powerfully. The noblest characteristics of the 
Hebrew race, coupled with a thorough-going con- 
secration and sense of duty to mankind, fitted 
Isaiah, Hosea, Amos and Joel to write imperish- 
able truths. The word of the Lord abideth for- 

^'J. H. Gardiner, "The Bible as Literature," p. 215. 



Philosophy of Hebrew Expression 47 

ever, because there is so much in it that reaches 
man's deepest soul and fits his every condition. 
The prophecies are the highest peak in the writ- 
ings of men ^^ because they deal most comprehen- 
sively with the problems of life and destiny. 

The deep feeling, violent agitation and long- 
ing for comprehensive expression found in the 
Hebrew race are responsible for the figures in 
the Prophetical Writings. To use the language 
of Gilfillan, "The proof of great thoughts is, Will 
they translate into figured and sensuous expres- 
sion? Will nature recognize, own and clothe them 
as if they were her own, or must they stand small, 
shivering and naked before her unopened door?"^^ 
Great thoughts prompted by deep emotions will 
carry figures without seeming to be burdened. The 
crying necessity for improvement in society and re- 
ligion so wrought upon the sensitive souls of the 
Prophets that ordinary prose was inadequate to 
express their ideas. Instead of their figures being 
artificial or monotonous they were the spontaneous, 
outburst of souls laden with the sins of the peo- 
ple. The connection between figures and the 
thoughts of the Prophets seemed necessary and 
natural. 

Did they wish striking expressions of joy or 
pathos, simplicity or dignity, discouragement or 



"^J. H. Gardiner, "The Bible as Literature," p. 215. 
'^ "Bards of the Bible," p. 33. 



48 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

enthusiasm, figures of speech satisfied every re- 
quirement. Did they wish to inspire hope or com- 
pel regret or remorse, figures are the effective 
means. It would be impossible for Isaiah to ex- 
press as much without the use of imagery as he 
does in the following phrases : — 

"Laden with iniquity," "I am full of burnt offerings," 
''hands are full of blood," "garden that hath no water," 
"swords into plowshares and spears into pruning hooks," 
"beat my people to pieces," "draw iniquity with cords." 

In such expressions words approximate living 
things. 

One can best judge the character of a stream 
by going to its source. In like manner, because 
we have acquainted ourselves with the characters 
and motives of the Hebrew people, we may more 
correctly estimate the writings of their Prophets. 



CHAPTER IV 

ISAIAH, HIS TIMES AND STYLE 

WE have beheld a portion of the large num- 
ber of splendid and tremendous forces that 
enter into the making of a Prophet. It Is para- 
doxical that so little is known concerning the most 
admired, and in some respects, the greatest He- 
brew Prophet. The writings of Isaiah^ are, how- 
ever, his sufficient memorial. 

He was married, raised a family, and "was a 
citizen if not a native of Jerusalem." ^ This city- 
had a marked Influence on his career. George 
Adam Smith says Jerusalem Is the "center and re- 
turn of all his thoughts, the hinge of the history 
for his time, and the summit of those brilliant 
hopes with which he fills the future." ^ 

God wished to teach Israel In the Prophetical 
era some needful lessons. He was aided in this 

^ Anything said here must not be understood as being opposed 
to the generally accepted theory of two Isaiahs. This theory 
helps to account for differences found in the literary style of the 
book. The one whose call is mentioned in the sixth chapter 
is referred to by us unless a statement to the contrary is made 
or implied. 

'"Biblical Illustrator," "Isaiah," Vol. I, p. 6. 

' G. A. Smith, "Expositors Bible," "Isaiah," Vol. I. 

49 



50 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

by her two greedy and powerful enemies, Egypt 
and Assyria. During the major part of this epoch, 
Israel was able to exist only because her enemies 
were troubled by other nations or because she 
combined with other small states for mutual pro- 
tection. When she enjoyed peace it was often be- 
cause her enemies had grown weak. Security and 
prosperity always led in time through "commer- 
cial development to moral laxity and religious un- 
faithfulness."^ It was while struggling against 
other nations or during her moral and religious 
decline that the succor of the Prophets was most 
noticeable. Israel needed the Prophets, and be- 
cause of their abandonment to her good and God's 
purposes they gained literary ability and moral 
and religious power. 

Judah was more fortunately situated than Israel 
with regard to annoyances and enemies. She could 
not stand prosperity, however, but often drifted 
into a condition in which religion, instead of being 
a matter of pious fervor was one of diplomacy or 
political fear. 

The Prophets, by their successful handling of 
these political and religious problems, demon- 
strated their capacity and capability. No other 
Prophet surpassed Isaiah in this important work. 
He was both an astute politician and a devoted 
religionist. He saw readily and comprehensively, 

* Catholic Ency., Art. "History of Israel." 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 51 

the predicaments in which the Kingdom was 
placed. He possessed courage and reliance on 
God in sufficient degree to inspire others. Israel 
did not suffer unduly when she followed his coun- 
sel. 

The sixth chapter of the Prophecies records an 
important experience in Isaiah's career. He was 
a keen observer of political situations and the 
noticeable difference between the beginning and 
termination of King Uzziah's reign "was the en- 
franchisement of his faith."^ The vision that 
Isaiah received gave him a distinct view of his own 
inconsistencies and of the sin in the surrounding 
civilization.^ Henceforth he must speak out what 
is in his heart. 

The Isaiac Prophecies have been the literary 
wonder of the ages. We find in them striking evi- 
dences of unsurpassed powers of description. The 
ability to penetrate the thickest veil and to see 
conditions as they were; to peer into the recesses 
of the human heart; to pierce the darkness of the 
past, present and future — these are the reasons for 
this coveted power of description. (See Chs. 
XXXIV:ii.i5,XIII:i9-22,X:28-32.) 

The Prophecies of Isaiah exhibit throughout a 
wonderful energy of expression and vigor of 
style. Nothing is overdone. Every phase of the 

'G. A. Smith, "Expositors Bible," "Isaiah," Vol. I, p. 59. 
^ See G. Matheson, "Representative Men of the Bible," Vol. 
II, p. 270 ff. 



52 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

ubiquitous treatment of the subjects has been 
touched just enough. The strongest terms have 
been sought for and found. The leading ideas 
are the most profound that mankind has ever pon- 
dered; — ^the majesty of God (Chs. II, III, VI and 
XII) ; the sinfulness of men (Chs. I, III, V and 
XXX) ; salvation for a remnant (Chs. I, IV, XI, 
XIV, XXVIII, XXIX, XXXIandXXXVII) ; ref- 
uge in God alone (Chs. I, VIII, IX, and XVIII). 
Glowing tributes have been paid by scholars 
to the writers of these Prophecies. We append a 
few: "I felt," says Sir Wm. Herschel, "after a 
considerable sweep through the sky with my tele- 
scope, Sirius announcing himself from a great dis- 
tance; and at length he rushed into the field of 
view with all the brightness of the rising sun, and 
I had to withdraw my eyes from the dazzling 
object. So have we, looking out from our 'specu- 
lar tower,' seen from a great way off the approach 
of the 'mighty orb of song,' — ^the divine Isaiah — 
and have felt awestruck in the path of his com- 
ing." '^ Ewald exalts him in the following lan- 
guage: "In Isaiah we see prophetic authorship 
reaching its culminating point. Everything con- 
spired to raise him to an elevation to which no 
Prophet either before or after could attain as a 
writer. Among the other Prophets each of the 
more important is distinguished by some particu- 

^Gilfillan, "Bards of the Bible," p. 137. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 53 

lar excellence or some one peculiar talent; in 
Isaiah all kinds of talent and all beauties of pro- 
phetic discourse meet together so as mutually to 
temper and qualify each other; it is not so much 
any single feature that distinguishes him as the 
symmetry and perfection of the whole."^ Driver 
says, "His literary style is chaste and dignified. 
The language is choice but devoid of all artificial- 
ity or stiffness. Every sentence is compact and 
forceful. The rhythm is stately and the periods 
are finely rounded. His Prophecies always form 
artistic wholes adequate to the effect intended, 
having no features overdrawn. He has the power 
of adapting his language to the occasion and bring- 
ing home to his hearers what he would have them 
understand. And he can always point to the 
truth which he desires to impress by some apt 
figure or illustration."^ 

The rich vocabulary indicates effective literary 
power coupled with a full and exact command of 
the subject. Isaiah is fond of concrete and objec- 
tive terms and expressions. The following ex- 
amples will indicate this as well as his passion for 
imagery: — 

"Oak whose leaf fadeth," "garden that hath no water," 
"nations shall flow," "land is full of silver and gold," 

^"Propheten des Alten Bundes," p. i66. 

® S. R. Driver, "Introduction to Literature of Old Testament," 
p. 215 ff. 



54 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

"gates shall lament and mourn," "multitudes are parched 
with thirst," "wickedness burneth as fire." 



As a rule the sentence structure of these Proph- 
ecies is simple. Some sentences begin with clauses 
which are followed by the main statement. Many 
are brief and pointed. A portion of the sentences 
are compound. In these coordinate conjunctions 
are freely used. Parallelism may be frequently 
seen. The following will serve as examples of the 
sentence structure: — 



"With the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked," 
"the wolf shall dwell with the lamb," "the sucking child 
shall play on the hole of the asp," "thou art cast forth 
away from thy sepulchre, like an abominable branch," 
"the counsel of the wisest counsellors of Pharaoh is be- 
come brutish," "thou art wholly gone up to the house- 
tops," "he shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem," "I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place," "we 
have made a covenant with death, and with hell are we 
at agreement," "I give waters in the wilderness, and 
rivers in the desert." 



It is in imagery that these Prophecies excel. 
Every paragraph and nearly every verse contains 
some kind of figure. The Prophecies of Isaiah 
contain as many, perhaps, as the remaining Pro- 
phetical books. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style ^$ 

Figures 
Figures of Resemblance 

A figure of Resemblance consists in pointing 
out or asserting a likeness between things in other 
respects unlike. 

The Prophecies of Isaiah contain every kind 
and grade of figures. The larger number is classed 
with those of resemblance. These writings con- 
tain some of the most vigorous and graceful met- 
aphors and similes to be found in the English lan- 
guage. 

SIMILE 

The simile is used to compare unknown with 
known objects or as an aid in amplifying the sub- 
ject in hand. Several examples follow: — 

He will surely violently turn and toss thee like a ball 

Into a large country.^° 

And I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place.^^ 

When Isaiah wishes to impress the manner in 
which God deals with the dominant heathen, he 
says : — 

The earth shall reel to and fro like a drunkard.^^ 

'°Is. XXII :i 8. "Is. XXII :23. "Is. XXIV :20. 



S6 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

At times he exults in the goodness of God and 
breaks forth in the following language : — 

And Moab shall be trodden down under him, 

Even as straw is trodden down for the dunghill. 

And he shall spread forth his hands in the midst of them, 

As he that swimmeth spreadeth forth his hands to swim.^^ 

A very illuminating and familiar figure is used 
to teach the vanity of Israel's reliance on Egypt, 
and trusting in her own devices. Here, as in 
several places, the figures are curiously mixed : — 

Therefore this iniquity shall be to you as a breach ready 

to fall, 
Swelling out in a high wall, 
Whose breaking cometh suddenly at an instant, 
And he shall break it as the breaking of the potter's vessel 
That is broken in pieces.^* 

In the same chapter we have an effective figure, 
a mixture of simile and hyperbole: — 

One thousand shall flee at the rebuke of one; 

At the rebuke of five shall ye flee: 

Till ye be left as a beacon upon the top of a mountain 

And as an ensign on a hill.^^ 

To indicate the prosperity and illumination that 
will come with the return of God's grace, Isaiah 
says : — 

Moreover the light of the moon shall be as the light of 
the sun, 

"Is. XXV:io-ii. " Is. XXX:i3-i4. ''Is- XXXiiy. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 57 

And the light of the sun shall be sevenfold, 

As the light of seven days, 

In the day that the Lord bindeth up the breach of His 

people, 
And healeth the stroke of their wound. ^^ 

The light of truth will shine with such brilliancy 
that the uttermost parts of the globe will be 
reached. These glorious conditions will prevail 
when God takes complete control. 

An appropriate, comforting and well-known 
simile is found in the thirty-second chapter. It 
teaches in an effective manner the power of in- 
fluence and personality: — 

And a man shall be as an hiding place from the wind, 

And a covert from the tempest; 

As rivers of water in a dry place ; 

As the shadow of a great rock in a weary land.^''' 

When the gracious reign of God shall come 
upon the earth: — 

The heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll: 
And all their host shall fall down, 
As the leaf falleth off from the vine. 
And as a falling fig from a fig tree.^^ 

This is more nearly literal than would at first 
appear. In ancient times books were made in the 
form of a scroll that could be rolled into small 
compass. 

" Is. XXX :26. " Is. XXXII .2. " Is. XXXIV 4. 



58 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

In describing conditions of happiness in the 
future Zion, Isaiah says: — 

Then shall the lame man leap as a hart, 
And the tongue of the dumb sing.^^ 

The work of the great Physician is to extend 
to every part of the nature, — physical, intellectual 
and spiritual. 

In the East the quick withering of the delicate 
spring grass is proverbial. By many Hebrew 
writers ''grass" is a symbol of things fleeting and 
evanescent. When Hezekiah prays for deliver- 
ance from Assyria, Jehovah answers, and Isaiah 
interprets a portion of His will in the following 
language; referring to the premature destruction 
of the Assyrians, he says : — 

They were as the grass of the field and as the green herb. 
As the grass on the housetops, and as corn 
Blasted before it be grown up.^^ 

The following simile indicates Isaiah's accurate 
knowledge of animal life. He has the naturalist's 
unusually keen powers of observation. 

I reckoned till morning, that, as a lion so will he break 

all my bones: 
Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter ; 
I did mourn as a dove.^^ 

*» Is. XXXV :6. ^' Is. XXXVII 127. " Is. XXXVIII :i3-i4. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 59 

A very comforting promise is the following; 
it is particularly beautiful and reassuring: — 

He shall feed his flock like a shepherd.^^ 

In a simile that borders on the sublime Isaiah 
seeks to impress the incomparable greatness of 
Jehovah : — 

It Is he that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, 
And the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers; 
That stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, 
And spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in.^^ 

The characteristic power of Jehovah is seen in 
the following forceful imagery: — 

The Lord shall go forth as a mighty man, 
He shall stir up jealousy like a man of war.^* 

In connection with such passages, the merciful 
side of God's nature must not be forgotten. As 
every right-minded magistrate has the good of 
the law-abiding at heart, when he punishes a crimi- 
nal, so God punishes rebellious nations for the 
good of His people. 

A comforting promise to repentant sinners is : — 

I have blotted out, as a thick cloud thy transgressions, 
And as a cloud thy sins.^^ 

"Is. XL:ii. ^Is. XL:22. ^Is. XLIIris. ^Is. XLIV:22. 



6o Literary Style of the Prophecies 

When we come to the latter part of the Prophe- 
cies, the figures are both fitting and graceful. 
Nothing but a great soul with wonderful vision 
could have produced the following : — 

O that thou hadst hearkened to my commandments! 

Then had thy peace been as a river, 

And thy righteousness as the waves of the sea: 

Thy seed also had been as the sand, 

And the offspring of thy bowels like the gravel thereof.^® 

Those who trust in Jehovah are not to fear what 
man can do unto them. His past dealings with 
men indicate that He may be relied upon for pro- 
tection. 

Neither be ye afraid of their revilings. 

For the moth shall eat them up like a garment, 

And the worm shall eat them like wool.^^ 

METAPHOR 

Metaphor, like simile and allegory, is founded 
on resemblance. It is more abridged and pointed 
than either of these. Clark ^* says, "It multiplies 
meaning without multiplying words." Perhaps no 
more beautiful thing was ever said of any class of 
figures than, "Of all the figures of speech, none 
approaches so nearly to painting." ^^ Metaphor 

""Is. XLVIII:i8, 19. "Is. LI 7 and 8. 

'^"Practical Rhetoric," p. 190, Edition 1891. 
** Blair's "Lectures on Rhetoric," p. 115. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 6i 

reaches the depths of one's nature with few words. 
Isaiah has added a new importance to metaphors 
by a judicious use of them. 

Chapter VII :i 8 contains a striking and very 
suggestive metaphor: — 

''Assyria is a swarm of bees." 

In Chapter VIII 17-8, Assyria is compared to a 
raging stream which, like the Euphrates, overflows 
its banks. 

Now therefore behold the Lord bringeth up upon them, 
The waters oi the river, strong and many. 
Even the King of Assyria, and all his glory; 
And he shall come up over all his channels, 
And go over all his banks. 
And he shall pass through Judah; 
He shall overflow and go over; 
He shall reach even to the neck: 

And the stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth 
of thy land, O Immanuel. 

Isaiah perceives the coming defeat of Syria and 
tells Ahaz that he need not fear. 

In the same day shall the Lord shave with a razor that 
is hired. 

Namely, by them beyond the river, by the King of As- 
syria, 

The head and the hair of the feet.^^ 

A brief but classical metaphor is : — 

"All flesh is grass." ^^ 
'■"Is. VII :20. "^Is. XL:6. 



62 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Others are: — 

And thy neck Is an Iron sinew, 
And thy brow brass.^^ 
And made me a polished shaft; 
In His quiver hath He hid me.^^ 
For thy Maker is thine husband.^* 

PERSONIFICATION 

By this figure, according to Bain^^ and Blair,^^ 
"life and action are attributed to inanimate 
things." Personification differs from simile and 
metaphor in that the latter deals with resem- 
blances between visible and invisible objects, while 
the former shows the relation of similarity be- 
tween cause and effect. 

Although this figure abounds in poetry, it is 
frequently used in prose and common conversation. 
In the "smiling of the fields" and the "thirsting of 
the earth" we see how almost unconsciously per- 
sonification is used in daily language. 

According to Blair there are several grades of 
personification; in one grade qualities of living 
creatures are ascribed to inanimate objects; e.g., 
"A raging storm" and a "cruel disaster." When 
inanimate objects are represented as those having 
life, we have a form of personification that is the 

'" Is. XLVIII :4. ^ Is. XLIX .2. ^' Is. LI V :5. 

'""Rhetoric." ^'Ibid. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 63 

life and soul of poetry. The strongest form of 
personification consists of objects being repre- 
sented as talking or as listening while we speak. 
In the following brief figure there is sufficient dig- 
nity in the idea of "earth" to lend strength. 

The earth mourneth and fadeth away.^^ 

In Chapter XXIV 123, Isaiah shows by an ex- 
pressive figure the splendor of Christ's coming: — 

Then the moon shall be confounded and the sun ashamed, 
When the Lord of Hosts shall reign 
In Mount Zion, and in Jerusalem, 
And before His ancients, gloriously.^^ 

The ultimate triumph of the church which Isaiah 
sees and her joy at the complete deliverance from 
the power of her enemies, is celebrated by him in 
the following glowing imagery: — 

The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for 

them; 
And the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. 
It shall blossom abundantly, and rejoice 
Even with joy and singing. 
The glory of Lebanon shall be given unto it. 
The excellency of Carmel and Sharon, 
They shall see the glory of the Lord, and the excellency 

of our God.^^ 

^Is. XXIV:4. ''Is. XXIV :23. '"Is. XXXV:i-2. 



64 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

A very bold figure is that in Chapter V:i4: — 

Therefore hell hath enlarged herself, 
And opened her mouth without measure. 

ALLEGORY 

There is much similarity between allegory and 
metaphor; yet it is often difficult to see the cor- 
rect meaning in allegory, while a correct metaphor 
seldom misleads. Another kind of allegory, the 
parabolic, is frequently more obscure in meaning 
than the extended metaphor. 

Isaiah uses this figure but little. It is a favorite 
of Ezekiel's. We will notice but two allegories 
in the Prophecies of Isaiah. The first is that of 
the vineyard signifying the Jewish church. The 
parable teaches that the church shall have God's 
mercy, loving-kindness and protection while pass- 
ing through tribulation. 

In that day sing ye unto her, 

A vineyard of red wine. 

I the Lord do keep it ; 

I will water it every moment: 

Lest any hurt it, I will keep it night and day.*^ 

The second is that of dissatisfied enemies. 
Again we have utterances to encourage God's 
children by declaring the discomfiture of their 
enemies. 

'"Is. XXVII :2-3. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 6^ 

And the multitude of all the nations that fight against 

Ariel, 
Even all that fight against her and her munition, and that 

distress her, 
Shall be as a dream of a night vision.*^ 

Figures of Contiguity 

This class of figures is based on the various 
associations that may arise in the mind. Many 
figures of contiguity are found in the Prophecies 
of Isaiah. The parallelism in the Hebrew Writ- 
ings makes these to be favorite figures. 

SYNECDOCHE 

Synecdoche Is defined by Bain as "putting the 
species for the genus, the individual for the 
species, the genus for the species, and the con- 
crete for the abstract."*^ 

Figures of this kind are not plentiful. The 
Prophets, however, never touch this string of their 
lyre without bringing forth choice music. 

Some select figures of synecdoche are: — 

"Everlasting joy upon their heads" (Ch. XXXV :io) ; 
"the isles saw it and feared" (Ch. XLI:5); "the isles 
shall wait for his law" (Ch. XLII:4); "let the wil- 
derness and the cities lift up their voice" (Ch. 
XLII:ii); "mine arms shall judge the people" (Ch. 
LI:5). 

^'Is. XXIX 7. 

^J. S. Clark, "Rhetoric," p. 197. 



66 Literary Style of the Prophecies 



METONYMY 

Metonymy consists in naming a thing by some 
accompaniment. It is a figure which may assume 
several aspects and is used frequently, but not ex- 
cessively, by the writers of Isaiah's Prophecies. 
Metonymies are scattered through these prophe- 
cies like mottled beads on a necklace, each a little 
different from the others, but all contributing to 
the beauty of the whole. Out of the large number 
of these figures, we select a few choice examples. 

In the twenty-fourth and twenty-seventh chap- 
ters Isaiah thunders out the wrath of Jehovah 
upon the nations. The following figure indicates 
its completeness: — 

And it shall come to pass, that he who fleeth from the 
noise of the fear shall fall into the pit ; 

And he that cometh up out of the midst of the pit shall 
be taken in the snare: 

For the windows from on high are open, 

And the foundations of the earth do shake.*^ 

A beautiful and discreet note of caution is 
sounded in the next figure. While God is punishr 
ing wicked peoples it is well for His people to 
abide closely by His side. 

Come, my people, enter thou into the chambers 
And shut thy doors about thee; 

^'Is. XXIV:i8. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 67 

Hide thyself as it were for a little moment, 
Until the indignation be overpast.** 

A beautiful and familiar passage is Chapter 
XXVIII: 1 6. This figure alludes to the oriental 
custom of placing massive cornerstones, and a con- 
nection is made (especially by the New Testa- 
ment writers) to Christ. It may be questioned 
whether the passage was to Christ, Messianic. 
It may mean that Isaiah wished to teach that only 
in Jerusalem was security or deliverance to be 
found. 



Behold I lay in Zion for a foundation a stone, 

A tried stone, a precious corner stone, a sure foundation.*^ 

Additional examples of metonymy are: — 

"The bread of adversity and water of affliction" (Ch. 
XXX :2o); the Lord's "lips full of indignation" (Ch. 
XXX :27): "Ye that sow beside all waters, that send 
forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass" (Ch. 
XXXII :2o) ; "Be thou their arm every morning" (Ch. 
XXXIII :2) ; "the mountains shall be melted with their 
blood" (Ch. XXXIV :3); "sword shall be bathed in 
heaven" (Ch. XXXIV 15) ; "A land of com and wind" 
(Ch. XXXVI :i7); "from the rising of the sun" (Ch. 
XLI:25) ; "passing through waters" and "through rivers" 
(Ch. XLIII:2); "feedeth of ashes" (Ch. XLIV:2o); 
"the ends of the earth" (Ch. XLV:22) ; "I have graven 
thee upon the palms of my hands" (Ch. XLIX:i6) ; "lick 
up the dust of thy feet" (Ch. XLIX:23). 

«Is. XXVI :20. ^Is. XXVIII :i6. 



68 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Each of the above figures has some special 
merit, adding strength, beauty or vision to the sub- 
ject in hand. 

Other metonymies that are so fitting as to de- 
serve more attention than our space allows are : — 

"Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the 
hole of the pit whence ye are digged" (Ch. LI:i); "I 
have taken out of thine hand the cup of trembling, even 
the dregs of the cup of my fury" (Ch. LI:22); "buy 
wine and milk without money and without price" (Ch. 
LV:i); "Cause to ride upon the high places of the 
earth" (Ch. LVIIIih) ; "He hath clothed me with the 
garments of salvation, He hath covered me with the robe 
of righteousness" (Ch. LXI:io); "thy land shall be 
married" (Ch. LXn:4) ; "the wolf and the lamb shall 
feed together" (Ch. LXV:25). 

EXCLAMATION 

Imagery of this character belongs only to the 
stronger emotions. We expect to find some in the 
writings of a man of Isaiah's temperament. In 
this we are not disappointed. He is temperate 
in the use of these figures as their character de- 
mands. 

When Isaiah calls attention to the value of the 
work of God's messengers and to the One who is 
the source of their strength, he breaks forth in 
the following eloquent and glowing language: — 

How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him 
that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace; 



Isaiah, His Tifnes and Style 69 

That bringeth good tidings of good, that publisheth sal- 
vation ; 
That saith unto Zion, thy God reigneth ! *^ 

The Prophet has had a wonderful vision of 
what the church may become. In the following 
figure he exhorts her to come up to her privilege, 
''rise from the dust," break her shackles and "as- 
sert her freedom." 

Awake, awake; put on thy strength, O Zion; 
Put on thy beautiful garments, O Jerusalem.*^ 



HYPERBOLE 

Hyperbole is described by Haven*^ "as an ex- 
pression which literally understood means more 
than the writer intends to utter." The exactness 
of Isaiah and the figures of the Hebrews being so 
closely allied to common things may account for 
the scarcity of hyperbole in the Prophecies. Any 
writer with a high sense of appropriateness would 
not use the figure except in connection with a noble 
occasion or character. 

To describe the coming of Christ's Kingdom 
and the personality of the King, sufficiently strong 
language can hardly be found. In the following 
figure Isaiah finds comprehensive and appropriate 
language : — 

*" Is. LII 7. *' Is. LII :i. ^ "Rhetoric" 



yo Literary Style of the Prophecies 

And His name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, 

the Mighty God, 
The everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace. 
Of the increase of His government and peace there shall 

be no end.*^ 



APOSTROPHE 

This figure Is closely allied to personification 
and Is often associated with It It Is defined by 
Kellogg as a figure "In which the absent one Is 
addressed as though present, and the Inanimate as 
though Intelligent and present.'* 

The sympathy of nature with Israel Is assumed 
In a striking apostrophe; now that Israel Is re- 
deemed nature is called upon to express her joy : — 

Sing, O ye heavens; for the Lord hath done it: 
Shout, ye lower parts of the earth: 
Break forth into singing, ye mountains, 
O forest, and every tree therein.^^ 

Figures of Contrast 

Isaiah's style does not abound In figures of con- 
trast. He found those of similarity and conti- 
guity better adapted to his purpose. A few well- 
chosen figures of this character adorn his Prophe- 
cies. 

«Is. IX:6-7. »»Is. XLIV:23. 



Isaiah, His Times and Style 71 



ANTITHESIS 

"Antithesis," says Bain, "consists in the expli- 
cit statement of the contrast implied in the mean- 
ing of any term or description." It is a figure 
frequently found in Hebrew poetry, and is espe- 
cially pointed and telling in the Prophecies of 
Isaiah. The following excerpts illustrate its char- 
acteristic strength. 

Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white 

as snow; 
Though they be red like crimson they shall be as wool.^^ 

And he looked for judgment but behold oppression; 
For righteousness, but behold a cry.^^ 

Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; 
That put darkness for light and light for darkness ; 
That put bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter ! ^^ 

Behold, my servants shall eat, but ye shall be hungry: 
Behold, my servants shall drink, but ye shall be thirsty: 
Behold, my servant shall rejoice, but ye shall be ashamed: 
Behold, my servants shall sing for joy of heart, 
But ye shall cry for sorrow of heart, 
And shall howl for vexation of spirit. *** 



INTERROGATION 

A truth stated in the fonn of a question often 
acquires thereby an added strength. In no other 

"Is. I:i8. "Is. V:7. "Is. V:20. "Is. LXV:i3.i4. 



72 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

way could one's confidence In the truth be ex- 
pressed in a more cogent manner. Almost uncon- 
sciously the listener is made a partner in the dis- 
course, and before he is aware his assent is gained. 
Clark thinks it is a species of anthithesis, as it 
"brings affirmative and negative answers into 
contrast."^^ 

Probably in no other way could the omnipotence 
of God be better shown than by the following in- 
terrogation : — 

Who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, 

And meted out heaven with the span, 

And comprehended the dust of the earth In a measure, 

And weighed the mountains in scales, 

And the hills in a balance? 

Who hath directed the Spirit of the Lord, 

Or being his counsellor hath taught him ? ^^ 

Isaiah is constantly seeking to impress the 
people with the idea of both the ability and willing- 
ness of Jehovah to aid them. 

Wherefore, when I came, was there no man ? 
When I called, was there none to answer? 
Is my hand shortened at all, that it cannot redeem ? 
Or have I no power to deliver? ^^ 

The Prophet, being sincere, cannot brook any 
hollow observance of a religious custom. Formal- 

'^^ Clark's "Practical Rhetoric." 

»«Is. XL:i3-i3. "Is. L:a. 



Isaiah^ His Times and Style 73 

ism must be rebuked until all worship is from the 
heart. 

Is it such a fast that I have chosen? 

A day for a man to afflict his soul? 

Is it to bow down his head as a bulrush. 

And to spread sack-cloth and ashes under him? 

Wilt thou call this a fast. 

And an acceptable day to the Lord? 

Is not this the fast that I have chosen ? ^^ 

Zion will be enlarged norwirhsranding the 
scoffs of her enemies. The exiles will rejoice be- 
cause the offspring of Zion shall be "a nation born 
at once." The following interrogation suggests 
this in a cogent manner : — 

Who hath heard such a thing? 

Who hath seen such things? 

Shall the earth be made to bring forth in one day? 

Or shall a nation be bom at once ? ^^ 

George Adam Smirh"^'- has drawn a contrast be- 
tween the Prophecies of Isaiah and those of Jere- 
miah. Isaiah preached the inviolableness of 
Jerusalem. He persisted that Zion should not 
be taken, and that the people, though cut down 
to the roots, should remain planted in the land. 
Jeremiah preached a message directly opposite. 
**Around hi^m the popular prophets babbled by rote 

';is. LMII:5-6. ^^I5. L-WliS. 

*■ See Expositors Bible. "Isaiah." Vol. II. p. 27. 



74 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Isaiah's ancient assurances about Zion. Jeremiah 
called down the storm." He predicted the speedy- 
ruin of the temple and city, and summoned Judah's 
enemies against her in the name of God on whose 
former word she had relied for peace. 

Jeremiah is the Prophet of pathos rather than 
Isaiah. However, when the later Isaiah does 
"mitigate his voice," as in the fifty-third chapter, 
the beautiful, sublime and pathetic are blended in 
exquisite harmony. Nothing can be found in all 
literature that is more tender and touching than 
the following: — 

Can a woman forget her sucking child 

That she should not have compassion on the son of her 

womb ? 
Yea, these may forget, yet will not I forget thee.^^ 

We agree heartily with Hastings that '^Isaiah 
is the greatest Hebrew Prophet by strength of per- 
sonality, the wisdom of his statesmanship, the 
length and unbroken assurance of his ministry, the 
almost unaided service, the purity and grandeur of 
style, and influence he exerted on subsequent 
Prophecy." ^^ 

~Is. XLIX:i5. 

*" Hastings' "Bible Dictionary," Vol. II, p. 485, 



CHAPTER V 

JEREMIAH AND LAMENTATIONS 

FAITHFUL people are seldom appreciated as 
they should be until after they are dead. 
Having a work to do and performing it unswerv- 
ingly, it becomes popular to blame them for lack 
of tact or unnecessary harshness. Jeremiah be- 
longs to this class. Perhaps no time, in this world, 
is propitious for a faithful servant of God; cer- 
tainly the times in which Jeremiah lived were not 
favorable for a man of his temperament. 

Son of Hilkiah, priest in Anathoth, he was 
called to his work in his youth, 626 B. C, "the 
darkest period of the kingdom of Judah."^ Isaiah 
had the more popular task of preaching the in- 
violability of Jerusalem. When Jeremiah arrived 
on the scene he saw that Isaiah's doctrine had be- 
come a hindrance to the progress of the kingdom. 
Formalism had been bad enough in the time of 
Isaiah. In Jeremiah's time, however, not only 
was formalism rampant, but the doctrine of "in- 
violability" was leading to political arrogance and 
sure national defeat.^ 

^Ency. Americana, Vol. IX, Art. 'Jeremiah." 
""See "Bible as Literature," Kellner, 1896, p. 163. 

75 



76 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Assyria had been a formidable enemy to Judah, 
but Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, was much 
more so. Jeremiah, feeling that discretion was 
the better part of valor, took the distasteful and 
unpopular course of counseling national subjec- 
tion. In addition, he demanded loving kindness, 
justice and purity in such practical, searching ex- 
hortations that he becomes hated of all men. 

Naturally he was timid and shrinking. Because 
he had a less pronounced personality than Isaiah 
he might more easily hear the voice from above, 
and accomplish a work impossible for that great 
Prophet. 

We may behold another important side of Jere- 
miah's nature in his tender sympathy and true 
brotherliness. Before the time of Solomon the 
wounds of a friend were faithful, and they have 
been so ever since. Only his profound sense of 
duty to God and love for his people were re- 
sponsible for the faithful deliverance of his mes- 
sage. His sympathy and tenderness were always 
commensurate with his severest denunciations. If 
he denounced the sins of his people, he did it in 
tears and for their good, and was always extending 
ftis hands to uplift them. If he felt that the in- 
habitants of Judah should be punished for their 
sins, he submits to be smitten, placed in the stocks 
and in the mire of dungeons, rather than fail to 
deliver his message. He keeps nothing back that 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 77 

will help his people, but reveals for their good the 
inmost recesses of his sensitive nature. He ever 
watches his countrsTnen with a s^inpathetic in- 
terest, born of sincere love and keen penetration 
into their life problems. 

The splendid faithfulness and courage of the 
man are seen in the fact that though he had a 
very sensitive and delicate nature and stood alone 
amidst enemies, he delivered, during forty years, 
messages, warnings and rebukes to a corrupt 
people, denouncing unfaithful priests and false 
prophets. Although the charge of treachery was 
brought against him, "he held fast to trust in 
Jehovah, and in the stormy sunset of Prophecy be- 
held the dawn of a brighter day."-^ 

As time passed and his Prophecies were ful- 
filled, those whom he had befriended against their 
wills came to have a high regard for him. As 
centuries elapsed many legends of romantic char- 
acter were associated with his name. 

As is always the case with an author. Jere- 
miah's literary output is colored by his life work 
and the prevailing tendencies of his nature. The 
s}Tnpathy, tenderness and deep emotion that are 
so frequently manifested in his dealings with 
Judah, are noticeable in his Prophecy. The char- 
acter and temper of no other Prophet is more com- 
pletely reflected in his writings than is that of Jere- 

* Lange'a C^fflmentary, Vol. XII, Preface, 



78 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

miah in his strongly subjective, affecting, elegiac 
style which combines the truth of history with 
the deepest pathos of poetry.* 

Critics do not agree in their estimate of his 
writings. Hastings,^ although paying him several 
fine tributes, says boldly, "We have no literature 
from him." This seems rather harsh, though 
there are good foundations for the statement. 
One writer^ claims that the book appears to be 
the product of writers unknown to us by name; 
that it is the reports and collections of oracles, 
prophets, historians, poets, editors and annotators. 
It also introduces us to a number of original pro- 
phetic authors living in later times while the 
editors of the book have associated with it a num- 
ber of poetical passages, psalm fragments, elegies 
and gnomic poems. Hastings beautifully says, 
"The flowers of his thought reach us after being 
cut and pressed and the fragrance and beauty re- 
maining faintly suggest what they were when 
fresh."^ Peake describes the style as "diffuse and 
pedestrian,"^ abounding in stereotyped formulae 
and constant repetition, while no plan seems to 
have determined its arrangement. 

Jeremiah was a Prophet of God first and a lit- 
erary personage second, else he would not have 

* See Lange's Commentary, Vol. XII, "Jeremiah." 
" Hastings' Bible Dictionary, Vol. II, p. 575. 
"See Ency. Biblica, Column 2388, Vol. II. 
'Bible Dictionary, Vol. II, p. 576. 
*New Century Bible, Vol. I, "Jeremiah," p. 48. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 79 

waited twenty-three years after the utterance of 
certain Prophecies before recording them. When 
commanded to speak he did not wait until his lips 
were touched by the muse of poetry.^ The re- 
ligious content of his oracles claimed more of his 
attention than their literary form. Some ideas 
which he regarded as fundamental are repeated to 
monotonousness. This, however, must be ex- 
pected as, true to the Hebrew tradition, he had but 
one string to play on, that being — sins must be 
denounced and penalties foretold. Conciseness 
and concentration are often lacking; his transitions 
are frequently abrupt, while his periods are dis- 
couragingly long and his style verbose. Bewilder- 
ment attends the continuous reading of many por- 
tions of the book. 

The Prophecy of Jeremiah will not receive jus- 
tice if judged by its literary merit alone. In his 
anxiety to do for others which resulted in his 
life being a drawn-out martyrdom, we see the 
loyalty and true courage of the man. These go 
a long way toward compensating for any literary 
deficiencies. It should be said in justice to Jere- 
miah, that he lived at a time when language in 
general, although more verbose and explicit, lost 
in compression. 

Lest we should fail to give him all the credit 
he deserves, we would say that his Prophecy, al- 

' New Century Bible, Vol. I, "Jeremiah," p. 48. 



8o Literary Style of the Prophecies 

though as a whole not a literary masterpiece, con- 
tains many isolated selections of true poetic beauty. 
While generally not ornamented, his Writings 
have a richness, beauty and depth due to their 
sadness and fervor. 

In sentences and single expressions alone does 
Jeremiah's claim to literary merit lie. He is un- 
equaled in expressions of sorrow and tenderness. 
Observe the following: — 

For the mountains will I take up a weeping and wailing, 
And for the habitations of the wilderness a lamentation, 
Because they are burnt up so that none can pass through 

them ; 
Neither can men hear the voice of the cattle; 
Both the fowl of the heavens and the beast 
Are fled; they are gone.^*^ 

It is the custom in Syria even to-day to have pro- 
fessional mourners. Realizing the severity of the 
impending blow upon Judah, Jeremiah asks in the 
following passage that all the mourning women 
come to aid in giving vent to f eehngs and provok- 
ing sorrow : — 

Consider ye, and call for the mourning women that they 

may come; 
And let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, 
That our eyes may run down with tears, 
And our eyelids gush out with waters. 

^"Jer. IX:io. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 8i 

And teach your daughters wailing, 

And every one her neighbor lamentation.^^ 

In the following figure the use of the term 
"virgin," through association, adds bitterness to 
Jeremiah's natural sorrow of heart: — 

Let mine eyes run down with tears night and day, and 

let them not cease : 
For the virgin daughter of my people is broken with a 

great breach, with a very grievous blow. 
If I go forth into the field, then behold the slain with 

the sword! 
And if I enter into the city, then behold them that are 

sick with famine ! ^^ 

In all literature there is perhaps nothing equal 
in pathetic tenderness to the passage closing with 
the words: — 

O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain 

of tears, 
That I might weep day and night for the slain of the 
daughter of my people ! ^^ 

In sadness, simplicity and conciseness, nothing 
is finer than: — 

The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we are 
not saved.^* 

^Jer. IX:i7-2i. "Jer. XIV:i7-i8. 

"Jer. IX :i. "Jer. VIII :20. 



82 Literary Style of the Prophecies 



Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

Jeremiah is not so profuse with figures as is 
Isaiah; like him, however, figures of resemblance 
take precedence. He is strong in the use of simile 
as the excerpts will indicate. The following figure 
of resemblance is tinged with irony: — 

And they bend their tongues like their bow for lies.^^ 

The lack of suspicion in his character is shown 
by what Jeremiah says concerning the plot formed 
against him: — 

But I was like a lamb or an ox that is brought to the 
slaughter.^® 

A well-balanced simile reminding one of the 
first Psalm is : — 

For he shall be as a tree planted by the waters." 

The following simple and familiar figure 
teaches the patience of God. He will use every 
means to transform the characters of individuals 
into the condition that He desires. 

» Jer. IX :3. " Jer. XI :i9. " Jer. XVII :8. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 83 

Behold, as the clay is in the potter's hand, 
So are ye in mine hand, O house of Israel.^^ 

The next comparison reveals something of the 
conscientiousness of Jeremiah. He was human 
and his work of faithfulness was distasteful to 
him, yet in the conflict between his higher and 
lower self the higher rules. 

But his word was in mine heart as a burnmg fire shut 
up in my bones.^^ 

A man of Jeremiah^s temperament and char- 
acter could not fail to denounce false Prophets. 
They, by their flattering promises of peace, hinder 
him in the work for which he is giving his life. His 
words, though harsh, are potent in accomplishing 
a necessary work. Fire both protects and pun- 
ishes : — 

Is not my word like as a fire ? saith the Lord ; and like a 
hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces ? ^^ 

Away from home the exiles are helpless and 
homesick, but when the restoration takes place they 
will have the potency of a well-watered garden. 

And their soul shall be as a watered garden.^^ 

"Jer. XVIII:6. "Jer. XXig. 

"^ Jer. XXIII :29 ^ Jer. XXXI :i2. 



84 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

To characterize Nebuchadnezzar and his work, 
Jeremiah uses the following significant figure: — 

Behold, he shall fly as an eagle.^^ 

METAPHOR 

His metaphors are rich and appropriate. True 
to the tendency manifested by the earlier Prophets, 
they are mostly drawn from things connected with 
the common life. Jeremiah was frequently pro- 
voked by the proneness of Judah to go into idol- 
atry. In the following figure he likens her to a 
dromedary and an ass: — 

Thou art a swift dromedary traversing her ways; a wild 
ass used to the wilderness.^^ 

To show the base character of his enemies, 
Jeremiah uses the brief but expressive figure: — 

They are brass and iron."* 

The relentlessness and courage of Jeremiah are 
constantly before us. Although he knew his faith- 
ful denunciations meant hatred, if not death, for 
him, his sense of duty constantly impelled him for- 
ward. To teach the terrible effects of sin, he 
represents the Lord as saying : — 

And I will make this city desolate, and an hissing.^^ 

=^Jer. XLVIII:40. ''Jer. 11:23-24. 

"Jer. VI:38. ^''Jer. XIX :8. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 85 

As If this were not enough, he continues : — 

And they shall be an execration, and an astonishment, and 
a curse, and a reproach.-^ 

The following figure is more important than its 
length suggests. The enemies of Israel had nearly 
destroyed her: — 

Israel is a scattered sheep.-^ 

To exhibit the splendor and judicial purpose of 
Babylon the following peculiar figure is used. 
Neither splendor nor honor can save her from the 
results of her wrong-doing, as this verse shows : — 

Babylon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand.^^ 
PERSONIFICATION 

We will show by the employment of four ex- 
amples Jeremiah's use of personification. The 
beauty of the first is alone sufficient to rank him 
as a true poet: — 

For death is come up into our windows, and is entered 

into our palaces, 
To cut o£E the children from without, and the young men 

from the streets.-^ 

^Jer. XLIV:i2. ^^Jer. Lriy. ^Jer. LI 7. ^Jer. IX:2i. 



86 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

To teach the seriousness of an impending judg- 
ment the writer says : — 

For this shall the earth mourn, and the heavens above 
be black.3<^ 

Warning of the impending calamity is given by 
the figurative use of the "wind" : — 

The wind shall eat up all thy pastors.^^ 

The characteristic tenderness and sympathy of 
the Prophet, as well as his conciseness and mas- 
siveness of thought is revealed in the following 
expression : — 

And the land shall tremble and sorrow.^^ 



ALLEGORY 

Jeremiah does not use allegory as much as some 
of the other Prophets ; his parable of the good and 
bad figs takes rank with the best: — 

The Lord shewed me and behold, two baskets of figs 
were set before the temple of the Lord, after that Nebu- 
chadnezzar, King of Babylon, had carried away captive 
Jeconiah, the son of Jehoiakim, King of Judah, and the 
princes of Judah, with the carpenters and smiths from 
Jerusalem, and had brought them to Babylon. One bas- 
ket had very good figs, even like the figs that are first 

'"Jer. IV:28. "'Jer. XXII :22. ''Jer. lA'.zs. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 87 

ripe: and the other basket had very naughty figs, which 
could not be eaten, they were so bad. Then saith the 
Lord unto me, What seest thou, Jeremiah? And I said, 
Figs; the good figs, very good; and the evil, very evil 
that cannot be eaten, they are so evil. 

Like these good figs, so will I acknowledge them that 
are carried away captive of Judah. . . . And as the evil 
figs, which cannot be eaten, they are so evil; surely thus 
saith the Lord, so will I give Zedekiah King of Ju- 
dah. . . .33 

Figures of Contiguity 



METONYMY 

In some figures of contiguity Jeremiah is espe- 
cially pleasing. His metonymies are fitting and 
plentiful. 

A fair list of them Is as follows: — 

"I have this day set thee over the nations and over the 
kingdoms" (Ch. I:io) ; "the young lions roared upon him, 
and yelled, and they made his land waste: his cities are 
burnt without inhabitant" (Ch. II:i5); ''have broken 
the crown of thy head" (Ch. II:i6) ; "the lion is come 
up from his thicket" (Ch. IV :7) ; "the portion of Ja- 
cob" (Ch. X:i6) ; "I will feed them with wormwood, 
and make them drink the water of gall" (Ch. XXIII: 15) ; 
"the fathers have eaten a sour grape, and the children's 
teeth are set on edge" (Ch. XXXI :29). 

The various invaders of Judah are character- 
ized in an effective figure: — 

^Jer. ClL XXIV :i-8. 



88 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and 
a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them, a leopard shall 
watch over their cities.^* 

The following figure contains a characteristic 
phrase of Jeremiah's. It suggests the bitterness re- 
sulting on account of sin. 

For the Lord our God hath put us to silence and given 
us waters of gall to drink.^^ 

The gracious benefits coming to those who ful- 
fill the conditions God imposes are stated in a 
charming metonymy: — 

A land flowing with milk and honey.^^ 

The figure in Chapter XV 19 is another upon 
which the claim of Jeremiah's being a poet may be 
safely based. 

Her sun is gone down while it was yet day. 

One acquainted with conditions will not be sur- 
prised if at times Jeremiah is almost discouraged 
while dealing with Judah's sins. Such feehng is 
suggested by the following strong figure : — 

The sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron, and 
with the point of a diamond.^^ 

'*Jer. V:6. '^ Jer. VIII :i4. '^Jer. XI:5. «^Jer. XVII:i. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 89 

A reassuring message for Christians is found in 
Chapter XXXIII: 15. Many have claimed to see 
in this a Prophecy of the Christ. 

At that time, will I cause the branch of righteousness 
to grow up unto David. 

Jeremiah's abihty to conceive of great ideas and 
clothe them in simple language is manifest in this 
striking metonymy : — 

And he shall array himself with the land of Egypt.^^ 

The hammer has frequently been associated 
with vigorous and continuously exerted energy (cf. 
Chas. Martel at battle of Tours). 

How is the hammer of the whole earth cut asunder 
and broken ! ^^ 

Here we have exclamation and metonymy 
mixed. 

APOSTROPHE 

One excerpt will illustrate Jeremiah's use of 
apostrophe. 

O thou sword of the Lord, how long will it be ere thou 
be quiet ? *° 

^Jer. XLIII:i2. ^'Jer. L:23. *°Jer. XLVII:6. 



90 Literary Style of the Prophecies 



Figures of Contrast 

But few figures of contrast are found In the 
Prophecy; these, however, are choice. 

EPIGRAM 

In the following pungent epigram we see the 
tendency to point and conciseness in Jeremiah's 
style : — 

The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we are 
not saved.*^ 

INTERROGATION 

The following interrogation strongly suggests 
the great privilege and exalted position of an 
Israelite : — 

Is Israel a servant? is he a house-born slave? why is he 
spoiled ?*^ 

If Jeremiah had ever been regarded as Insin- 
cere and artificial, the reading of the following 
would remove that estimation : — 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his 
spots ? *^ 

^ Jer. VIII :20. " Jer. II :i4. *' Jer. XIII :23. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 91 



IRONY 



Sharp and stinging irony is noticeable in the 
figure which follows : — 



I proclaim a liberty for you, saith the Lord, to the 
sword, to the pestilence, and to the famine; and I will 
make you to be removed into all the kingdoms of the 
earth.** 



The simplicity of the man deserves our atten- 
tion. It was the simplicity of sincerity and lack 
of artificiality. He was so genuine that he would 
do nothing for effect. His imagination might 
have soared to flights of imagery, however, if he 
had not so keenly realized the presence of and 
certain consequences of the sins of his people. As 
it was, ''His poetic flights were restrained by his 
presentiments; his utterance was choked by tears." 
Hastings pays a glowing tribute to his sombre 
realism and splendid dramatic power. Had he 
lived in a less tumultuous time and not been quite 
so conscientious, he would have been a poet of the 
first rank. As it is we have a poet with many of 
the finest Old Testament passages to his credit, 
while in majesty and sublimity of character he has 
but few peers in the annals of men. 

^'Jer. XXXIV :i7. 



92 Literary Style of the Prophecies 



Lamentations 

The book of Lamentations, probably written in 
Judah and Babylon, consists of ^yq, separate 
poems dealing with the fall of Jerusalem and the 
sufferings of the Israelites in connection therewith. 
A century ago a majority of the commentators 
considered the book as the work of Jeremiah, al- 
though but slight evidence can be found to estab- 
lish this belief. It is seriously questioned to-day 
whether the poems were all by the same author. 
It is difficult to imagine Jeremiah, disturbed as he 
was by the fall of Jerusalem, sitting down and 
writing five poems of this character. 

The most interesting thing about the book is 
the way it is written. In connection with the prac- 
tice of professional mourning there sprang up the 
elegiac rhythm. This suggests a union of two 
members in a kind of imperfect parallelism. The 
poems are written in either couplets or triplets in 
the acrostic form ; each of the first, second, fourth 
and fifth poems having twenty-two verses, the 
third consisting of sixty-six verses. The fifth poem 
drops the acrostic structure and dirge rhythm. 
The third poem is the climax. 

The style of this book is remarkable. It is 
vigorous and lively. Ewald holds that we owe 
a vast debt to the Captivity for some of the finest 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 93 

poetry, while Lange thinks nothing quite as artis- 
tic can be found in the Bible. 



Figures 

The writer of Lamentations is profuse in his use 
of imagery. In proportion to its size, the book 
contains as many figures as any of the Prophecies. 
A few illustrations will indicate the strength of the 
similes. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

The author feels keenly that the judgments on 
Zion came from Jehovah. He expresses this truth 
in a forceful figure : — 

And he burned against Jacob like a flaming fire, which 

devoureth round about. 
He hath bent his bow like an enemy: 
He stood with his right hand as an adversary, 
And slew all that were pleasant to the eye 
In the tabernacle of the daughter of Zion: he poured 

out his fury like fire.*^ 

The same thought is continued as a simile in 
the next verse : — 

The Lord was as an enemy: he hath swallowed up 
Israel.*^ 

^''Lam. 11:3-4. *^Lam. 11:5. 



94 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

The simile in Chapter IIIiio shows the writ- 
er's familiarity with the earlier parts of the Old 
Testament. The enemy is frequently compared 
to a lion : — 

He was unto me as a bear lying in wait and as a Hon 
in secret places. 

The appropriate figure of an ostrich that for- 
gets her eggs buried in the sand characterizes 
Judah : — 

The daughter of my people is become cruel, like the 
ostriches in the wilderness.*^ 

The following is a reflection on the leaders of 
Israel. The eyes of their souls have been blinded 
by ignorance and sin: — 

They have wandered as blind men in the streets, they 
have polluted themselves with blood.*^ 



METAPHOR 

Speaking in behalf of the nation and deploring 
its sins, the writer exclaims in the expressive meta- 
phor : — 

I was a derision to all my people, and their song all the 
day.*^ 

" Lara. IV :3. *« Lara. IV :i4. ** Lam. Ill :i4. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 95 

The same idea of being the subject of the taunts 
of the enemy is found in the metaphor : — 

I am their music. ^° 

PERSONIFICATION 

A touching illustration of personification is 
found in Chapter 1 :2 : — 

She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her 
cheeks.^^ 

The grievous condition of Jerusalem is brought 
before us in a suggestive figure : — 

Jerusalem hath grievously sinned; therefore she is re- 
moved : 

All that honoured her despise her, because they have seen 
her nakedness. . . . 

Her filthiness is in her skirts; she remembereth not her 
last end.^2 

Figures of Contiguity 
metonymy 

The author of Lamentations is especially fer- 
tile in metonymies: — 

"The daughter of Zion" (Ch. 1:6); "Yoke of my 
transgressions" (Ch. I:i4); "Covered the daughter of 

""Lam. 111:63. "Lara. 1:2. "Lam. 1:8-9. 



96 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

ZIon with a cloud" (Ch. II :i) ; "Lord hath swallowed 
up all the habitations of Jacob" (Ch. 11:2) ; "He hath 
cut off in his fierce anger all the horn of Israel" (Ch. 
11:3) ; "Stretched out a line" (Ch. 11:8) ; "the horn of 
thine adversaries" (Ch. II:i7); "filled me with bitter- 
ness, . . . drunken with wormwood" (Ch. III:i5). 

We will notice some of the metonymies in de- 
tail. An oft-quoted figure is that in Chapter III : 
27. Although submission and adaptation are dif- 
ficult to learn in old age, they may be learned 
while young under proper conditions : — 

It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his 
youth.^^ 

The undone condition of the rich and privileged 
classes Is forcibly expressed as follows: — 

They that were brought up in scarlet embrace dung- 
hills.5* 

EXCLAMATION 

The book of Lamentations opens with a wall 
of distress stated In the form of an exclamation 
combined with personification. The word "widow" 
suggests desolation and misery, while the word 
''provinces" suggests subjection: — 

How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! 
How is she become as a widow ! she that was great among 
the nations, 

"Lam. 111:27. "Lam. IV :5. 



Jeremiah and Lamentations 97 

And princess among the provinces, how is she become 
tributary ! ^^ 



HYPERBOLE 

An excellent example of hyperbole Is found In 
Chapter III 148-49 : — 

Mine eye runneth down with rivers of water for the de- 
struction of the daughter of my people. 

Mine eye trickleth down and ceaseth not, without any in- 
termission. 

Figures of Contrast 
interrogation 

The interrogations In Lamentations are very- 
expressive. If ZIon could only know that others 
had been as unfortunate, she would be comforted. 
The figure suggests that her circumstance Is un- 
paralleled and hopeless : — 

What thing shall I take to witness for thee? 

What thing shall I liken to thee, O daughter of Jeru- 
salem ? 

What shall I equal to thee, that I may comfort thee, O 
virgin daughter of Zion ? 

For thy breach is great like the sea : who can heal thee ? ^® 

The next Is one of the most cutting and humil- 
iating Interrogations In the Bible : — 

"Lam. I:i. "Lam. II:i3. 



98 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

All that pass by clap their hands at thee ; 

They hiss and wag their head at the daughter of Jeru- 
salem, saying, 

Is this the city that men call the perfection of beauty, the 
joy of the whole earth? ^^ 

These poems contain the very essence of the 
poetry of pathos in a profusion of imagery, while 
their technique is almost perfect. Whoever wrote 
them has an enduring monument to his poetical 
genius. 

"Lam. II:is. 



CHAPTER VI 

EZEKIEL AND DANIEL 
EZEKIEL 

EZEKIEL was born In Judah in the reign of 
Joslah and was carried into captivity with 
the first band of exiles, when thirty years of age.^ 
He entered on his Prophetical career at Chebar in 
593 B. C, after Jeremiah had prophesied thirty 
years. 

Both his labors and personality were unique 
because he did a successful work in the transition 
period between the earlier and later Prophetic 
conceptions. His predecessors had been either 
Seers or Prophets ; he was both Prophet and priest. 
Says Prof. H. P. Smith, "Ezekiel is the most in- 
fluential man that we find in the whole course of 
Hebrew history"; he emphasizes while he bridges 
the break between the older Israelitism of the 
past and the Judaism of the future. All that 
was noble among the later Jews was the gift of 
Ezekiel,^ handed down by him as a legacy from 

^ See Lange's Commentary, Vol. XIII, p. 4. 
'W. F. Lofthouse in "New Century Bible," p. 4. 

99 



100 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

the earlier ages, and transformed by him so as 
to persist under the changed conditions. He was 
the last of the Prophets and perhaps did not real- 
ize the full significance of his work and message.^ 
We have seen that when Israel as a nation de- 
clined the larger and decidedly spiritual Israel 
developed. Ezekiel was a potent factor in this 
development, placing great emphasis on individ- 
ual responsibility. The thought of personal re- 
ligion, which was budding in the time of Isaiah, 
grew toward maturity in the time of Jeremiah and 
received an added impetus through Ezekiel. 

Curtiss ^ holds that his claim to be called a 
great Prophet rests largely on "his adaptation 
both to express and to form the thinking of his 
time." 

Ezekiel excelled perhaps every other Prophet 
in striking traits of personality and literary style. 
If Isaiah was a religious statesman and Jeremiah 
a religious exhorter, Ezekiel was a student. His 
predecessors had been speakers, he was more 
nearly an elaborate and polished writer. 

We proceed in our study of Ezekiel with con- 
fidence because we are so well acquainted with 
him. He has left ample data by which to judge 
his personality and writings. There is a refresh- 
ing unity and orderliness about them. At the 

' See Ency. Biblica, Vol. II, Art. "Ezekiel." 
* Bible as Literature, p. 202. 



Ezekiel and Daniel loi 

same time they reveal a striking personality. He 
is at once passionate, determined and unflinching, 
while being tender and sympathetic. 

There have been many varied estimates of 
Ezekiel's style. It is so figurative that most read- 
ers do not put forth the necessary mental energy 
to understand him, while others are rapturous in 
his praise. He has been likened to a comet and 
meteor. The intensity and strangeness of his 
writings remind one of Dante and E. A. Poe.^ 
He is as much at home in the use of visions aad 
allegories as Bunyan to whom he has been com- 
pared. 

In the character of Ezekiel are blended the 
Prophet, priest and literary artist in beautiful 
proportion. Each phase of his character stands 
out distinctly without obscuring the others. The 
brevity and conciseness of Isaiah appear but sel- 
dom in Ezekiel's Writings. In striving to make 
his periods and paragraphs correct and his thought 
perfectly clear, he has at times excessively elab- 
orated. 

He probably borrowed from the earlier Proph- 
ets, but left the indelible stamp of his personality 
on what he borrowed. If Ezekiel had not pos- 
sessed true literary merit, Schiller would not have 
been so ecstatic in his praise, nor would Victor 
Hugo have classed him with Homer, i^schylus 

'See G. Gilfillan, "Bards of the Bible," p. 136 ff. 



102 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

and Juvenal in "the avenue of the immovable 
giants of the human mind," ^ nor would Herder 
have called him the iEschylus and Shakespeare of 
the Hebrews. 

Like the other Prophets, the duty laid on him 
was disagreeable. Being extremely sensitive, "he 
had to struggle against the moral and religious 
levity of the mass of the people; the torpor and 
idolatry of the principal men and the evil influ- 
ences of the false Prophets and Prophetesses." "^ 
Not only was his work distasteful, but like that 
of every true Prophet, it was not comprehended 
and understood, even though he sought to sup- 
press his inmost feelings and do his work calmly. 
When Jerusalem fell, confirming his predictions, 
the people had a greater respect for the man and 
his message. 

In the second chapter of this Dissertation we 
discussed the abnormal and ecstatic element in the 
Prophets. Ezekiel seems to have more of this 
than any other. Klosterman ^ goes so far as to 
say that he had a form of catalepsy. This prob- 
ably was not the case. The science of mind and 
the psychical liTe was not developed in Ezekiel's 
time, and, although he was probably abnormal 
at times, as most of us are, he was not conversant 
with nomenclature adequate to describe his con- 

"New Century Bible, "Ezekiel," p. ii (note). 
'Ency. Biblica, Vol. II, Column 1458. 
*New Century Bible, "Ezekiel," p. 7. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 103 

dition. This element of abnormality coupled 
with the fact of his not having been present at 
the actual scene of history may account for the 
great sweeps of his imagination and the theoretical 
flavor of his Writings. 

Ezekiel was a man of great energy of char- 
acter. Having pronounced intellectual ability and 
being well-read, we are not surprised to find in 
his Prophecy a rich and varied vocabulary. If 
conditions call for measured methodical expres- 
sion, as when dealing with the sanctuary, or rare 
and charming comparison, he is equal to the oc- 
casion. His being associated with scribes at the 
time of the exile would only strengthen his literary 
ability and develop peculiarities of style. His 
gamut of feelings and interests was extensive but 
not more so than his command of language. The 
following promiscuous list of words and phrases 
will show the richness of his style in these particu- 
lars: 

"Calve's foot^" "briers and thorns," "color of amber," 
"impudent children," "adamant, harder than flint," "went 
in bitterness," "spirit entered into me," "abominable 
flesh," "a lament, an instruction, and an astonishment," 
"scatter your bones," "the rod hath blossomed, pride hath 
budded," "the image of jealousy," "deal in fury," "city 
full of perverseness," "holy oblation," "make reconcilia- 
tion," "just balances," "sprinkle blood," "cherubims and 
palm trees," "polluted my Sabbaths," "breaking of the 
loins," "a sword is sharpened and also furbished," "I will 
overturn, overturn, overturn it," "profane wicked prince 



104 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

of Israel," "infamous and much vexed," "untempered 
mortars," "a parable unto a rebellious house," "a couch- 
ing place for flocks." 



Figures 
Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

We may see In this first simile how Ezekiel 
borrowed from, and was inspired by, the writings 
in the Pentateuch : The burning bush (Ex. Ill :2) , 
the pillar of fire by night (Ex. XIII 122), the fire 
on Sinai (Ex. XIX :8) , the fire of the Lord (Num. 
XI:i-30). 

As for the likeness of the living creatures, their appear- 
ance was like burning coals of fire, and like the 
appearance of lamps.^ 

The following figure is a cause for believing 
that Ezekiel and Jeremiah drew material from the 
same source (see Jer. XV: 16). The work of 
the Lord may be distasteful at first but this is fol- 
lowed by infinite sweetness: — 

Then did I eat it; and it was in my mouth as honey for 
sweetness.^^ 

'•Ezek. 1:13. "Ezek. 111:3. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 105 

The following strong figure was a favorite with 
Ezekiel. It suggests the effect of wickedness on 
the life : — 

All knees shall be weak as water.^^ 

The figure in Chapter XXXII :2 shows the inde- 
pendence of Ezekiel. Instead of obtaining his 
symbols, as was usual, from land animals, he 
chooses one from the water : — 

Thou art as a whale in the seas. 

The next suggestive figure shows us conditions 
that will obtain when Israel is renewed: — 

As the holy flock, as the flock of Jerusalem in her sol- 
emn feasts: so shall the waste cities be filled with flocks 



METAPHOR 

Two choice excerpts will illustrate the author's 
use of this figure. An apt metaphor is used to 
suggest the contaminating influences to which 
Israel had succumbed. If she submits to the "fiery- 
trial" in the right spirit, all her dross will be con- 
sumed : — 

The house of Israel is to me become dross: all they are 
brass, and tin, and iron, and lead, in the midst of the 
furnace ; they are even the dross of silver.^^ 

"Ezek. VII :i7. " Ezek. XXXVI isS. "Ezek. XXII :i8. 



io6 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Warning is given to Egypt and Pharaoh by 
the parable concerning Assyria. The fact of As- 
syria's reaching a glorious and commanding stage 
in her history did not deter her from falling : — 

Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon ^* 



PERSONIFICATION 

Two of Ezekiel's choice personifications are : — 

The rod hath blossomed, pride hath budded. 
Violence is risen up.^^ 

This one suggests in a more vigorous manner 
than the language would indicate the punishment 
hanging over Jerusalem on account of her wick- 
edness. 

Not all of Ezekiel's figures are harsh in char- 
acter. The following tells how Israel is to be 
renewed and blessed for Jehovah's sake: — 

But ye, O mountains of Israel, ye shall shoot forth your 
branches, and yield your fruit to my people of 
Israel.^^ 

ALLEGORY 

It is in allegory that Ezekiel seems to delight. 
Says Lofthouse/'^ concerning his allegories, "Now 

"Ezek. XXXIrs. "Ezek. VII:io-ii. "Ezek. XXXVI:8. 
" New Century Bible, "Ezekiel," p. lo. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 107 

he carries out some lengthy symbolical action — 
so lengthy that we wonder if it ever really was 
acted." 

In the parable of the wall and untempered mor- 
tar we perceive the breadth of Ezekiel's knowl- 
edge. Here the superficial work of false Proph- 
ets is characterized in a scathing manner: — 

Because, even because they have seduced my people, 
saying. Peace; and there was no peace; and one built up 
a wall, and lo, others daubed it with untempered mortar 
. . . that it shall fail: there shall be an overflowing 
shower ; ... So will I break down the wall that ye have 
daubed with untempered mortar . . . and it shall fall, 
and ye shall be consumed in the midst thereof. . . . The 
wall is no more, neither they that daubed it.^® 

An allegory richly laden with meaning is the 
parable of the Hon whelps. Although Israel is a 
lioness she has lain down among heathen lion- 
esses and unconsciously adopted their evil traits. 
Another lesson (from verse 4) is that the other 
nations are becoming alarmed at the growing 
power of the Israelitish lioness. As a consequence, 
Nebuchadnezzar takes her to Babylon and puts 
her in chains: — 

What is thy mother? A lioness: she lay down among 
lions, she nourished her whelps among young lions. And 
she brought up one of her whelps; it became a young 
lion, and it learned to catch the prey. . . . The nations 
also heard of him; he was taken in their pit, and they 

^'Ezek. XIII:io-i5. 



io8 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

brought him with chains unto the land of Egypt . . . 
then she took another of her whelps, and made him a 
young lion. . . . And he knew their desolate palaces, and 
he laid waste their cities. . . . Then the nations set 
against him on every side ... he was taken in their pit. 
And they put him in ward in chains, and brought him to 
the king of Babylon. . . . ^^ 



Figures of Contiguity 

Figures of contiguity, especially metonymies 
and synecdoches, come from the pen of Ezeklel 
with readiness. To find some other name for 
things, to bring the spiritual and ethereal within 
easy range of the common mind, and at the same 
time couch them In poetical diction, Is his forte. 

SYNECDOCHE 

Ezeklel has some choice figures of synecdoche. 
His familiarity with literary things Is almost un- 
limited. No more expressive or suggestive figure 
can be found than the following : — 

I will scatter your bones round about your altars.^^ 

In Chapter XVIII, Ezeklel carefully states the 
marks of a good man. One of them is: — 

Hath given his bread to the hungry.^^ 
"Ezek. XIX:2-9. '"Ezek. VI :5. "' Ezek. XVIII 7. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 109 

The author has many forceful methods of ex- 
pressing himself. The thorough and irreparable 
overthrow of Pharaoh is stated in the following 
figure : — 

And will break his arms, the strong, and that which was 
broken.^^ 

Ezekiel evidently believed in the doctrine of 
hell:— 



The strong among the mighty shall speak to him out of 
the midst of hell.^^ 



METONYMY 

In this oft-quoted excerpt a fine philosophical 
question is raised. It is difficult to get away from 
the question of personal responsibility for deeds 
done. What shall be done with the fact of the 
"sins of the fathers being visited upon the chil- 
dren"? It is a comfort to know that God is 
just: — 

The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's 
teeth are set on edge.^* 

The acquaintance of Ezekiel with the Penta- 
teuch is revealed on almost every page. Some 

'"Ezek. XXX :22. ^Ezek. XXXII :2i. ^Ezek. XVIII :2. 



no Literary Style of the Prophecies 

characteristics of the promised land may be seen 
in : — 

a land . . . flowing with milk and honey.^^ 

In the following figure we note again Ezekiel's 
familiarity with the history and law of the Old 
Testament : — 



All the inhabitants of Egypt shall know that I am the 
Lord, because they have been a staff of reed to the 
house of Israel.^^ 



Other apt metonymies are: — 

"Prophesy against the forest" (Ch. XX:46) ; "spread 
out my net over thee" (Ch. XXXII 13) ; "the fire of my 
wrath" (Ch. XXXVIII 119). 

Figures of Contrast 
Ezekiel is not lavish with this class of imagery. 

EPIGRAM 

The following epigram suggests brevity rather 
than the over-elaboration of which Ezekiel has 
been accused: — 

The soul that sinneth, it shall die.^'' 
"Ezek. XX :6. '"Ezek. XXIX :6. "Ezek. XVIII:4. 



Ezektel and Daniel 1 1 1 

Ezekiel, at that early stage in the religious life 
of the world, had grasped the larger and richer 
meaning of the words "life" and "death" in 
their relation to sin. 

INTERROGATION 

The following interrogation speaks volumes in 
a forceful manner: — 

Have I any pleasure at all that the wicked should die? 
saith the Lord God: and not that he should return 
from his ways, and live ? ^® 

Ezekiel is a first class Prophet with strong men- 
tality. He was emotional but his feelings were 
subservient to his reason. The excellent arrange- 
ment found in his Prophecy leads us to believe 
that much thinking preceded the writing of his 
message. Although his style is surpassed by that 
of Isaiah in number and variety of figures, it has 
a wonderful luxuriance of detail. 

Daniel 

Strictly speaking, the book of Daniel should not 
be among the Prophecies, for it is apocryphal 
rather than Prophetical. The Prophets rebuked 
sin, foretold judgments and promised salvation 
to all who would meet the conditions. The writer 

''Ezek. XVIII :23. 



112 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

of "Daniel" gave six narratives in the first divi- 
sion (Chs. I-VI) of his book and in the second 
(Chs. VII-XII) recorded visions of four world 
empires — Chaldean, Median, Persian and Greco- 
Macedonian, which culminated in the establish- 
ment of an eternal kingdom. 

In the Prophecies of Ezekiel and Zechariah 
there is an approach to the apocalyptic style of 
Daniel. Although the objects presented are star- 
tling and at times poetic, there is a calm and uni- 
form dignity in the language. Instead of being 
concerned about the circumstances of his times, 
the writer does not utter a single note of author- 
ity or use the term, "Thus saith Jehovah." 

Instead of our finding in Daniel a rich, full 
style similar to that of Isaiah, there is artificiality 
and "a sounding oratorical stateliness." The book 
is rhetorical rather than poetic, stately rather than 
ecstatic, diffuse rather than pointed. It is much 
inferior to the other Major Prophets in depth 
and power, there being slight spontaneity and al- 
most no profound play on words.^^ 

The evidence, which shows conclusively that it 
was written in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
may account for the indifferent style, as the style 
of Hebrew writers deteriorated from the time of 
Ezekial. Apocryphal literature contains a larger 
supernatural element and is written for subsequent 

^See Expositors Bible, p. 19 f. also p. 84. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 113 

times rather than the present. Bishop Westcott 
terms Daniel a commentator to the Prophets. 

We would not underestimate the value of the 
book of Daniel. It contains thrilling lessons of 
encouragement and inspiration. It gives in Chap- 
ter XII :2 the first plainly expressed hope of res- 
urrection. It deals in a large way with angelology 
and shows in a conclusive manner that the king- 
dom of God will ultimately triumph. However, 
in the matter of noble style and "intrinsic dignity 
and worth it is always placed by the instinct and 
conscience of mankind on a lower grade than such 
out-pourings of Divine teachings as breathe and 
burn through the pages of David and an 
Isaiah." ^o 

Figures 

After the above estimate of the style of Daniel, 
we do not expect many figures of speech. The 
figures found are neither as vigorous nor force- 
ful as those of most of the other Prophets. A 
few excerpts will show the writer's use of im- 
agery. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

Referring to the punishment of King Nebuch- 
adnezzar we read: — 

'^ Bishop Westcott in Expositors Bible, "Daniel," p. 34. 



114 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

He was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and 
his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his 
hairs were grown like eagle's feathers, and his nails 
like birds' claws : ^^ 

The similes in Chapter X:6 make us think of 
Revelation. This is the description of the man 
Daniel saw in a vision by the river Hiddekel. 
In conception it approaches the poetical : — «'^ 

His body was like the beryl, and his face as the appear- 
ance of lightning, and his eyes as lamps of fire, and 
his arms and his feet like in color to polished brass, 
and the voice of his words like the voice of a multi- 
tude. 



Figures of Contiguity 
metonymy 
A rather inelegant metonymy is : — 

Ye shall be cut in pieces, and your houses shall be made 
a (dung-hill). ^2 

EXCLAMATION -^ 

After the dehvery of the three Hebrew chil- 
dren from the fiery furnace Nebuchadnezzar 
breaks forth in the following exclamation concern- 
ing God : — 

»^Dan. IV:33. "Dan. 11:5. 



Ezekiel and Daniel 115 

How great are His signs! and how mighty are His 
wonders ! ^^ 



HYPERBOLE 

Perhaps the finest figure the book contains is 
the following hyperbole. It is a portion of the 
recital of the dream in which Nebuchadnezzar saw 
the overthrow of his kingdom : — 

The tree grew, and was strong, and the height thereof 
reached unto heaven, and the sight thereof to the end 
of all the earth: The leaves thereof were fair and 
the fruit thereof much, and it was meat for all: the 
beasts of the field had shadow under it, and the 
fowls of the heaven dwelt in the boughs thereof, and 
all flesh was fed of it. 

The Book of Daniel was written by a man of 
wide outlook and broad sympathies. Being a 
true historian he could see a God of power and 
might transforming nations at His will. No pains 
were spared to encourage the doers of righteous- 
ness and to nerve them for their conflicts. 

''Dan. IV .-3. 



CHAPTER VII 

^ HOSEA, JOEL AND AMOS 

HOSEA 

HOSEA was the son of Beeri and began his 
Prophetic career in the reign of Uzziah. 
He almost startled the world with the allegory 
of his marriage relations which we have been 
taught to believe is true. 

In general knowledge of his times and the vari- 
ous local conditions, Hosea is comparable to 
Isaiah and Ezekiel. He is not narrow. On the 
contrary, he suggests many of the doctrines which 
were developed more elaborately by the later 
Prophets. 

Because of his deep emotions and the early, 
primeval condition of the Hebrew language, his 
style is laconic almost to abruptness. Jerome ad- 
mires him for condensation and brevity.^ His in- 
tense realization of the conditions in Israel, min- 
gled with his sympathetic yearning for her wel- 
fare, forces him irresistibly forward with his mes- 

* International Ency., Vol. VII. 
Ii6 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 117 

sage. By every variety of image and suggestion 
he seeks to open the eyes of Israel to her danger. 
Rugged transitions, uncommon words, ellipses, in- 
versions and collocations follow one another in 
rapid succession. 

While his style is neither highly polished nor 
enchantingly rhythmical, these qualities are 
largely compensated for by a deep emotionalism 
and fatherly yearning to bless his people. Ewald 
sums up his style in these words : "A rich and 
lively imagination, a pregnant fullness of language, 
and, in spite of many strong figures, great tender- 
ness and warmth of expression. His poetry is 
throughout purely original, replete with vigor of 
thought and purity of presentation, yet at one 
time we find the gentle and flowing predominat- 
ing in his style, while at another it is violently 
strained and abrupt." 

Hosea was a very conscientious eighth century 
Prophet with an intense but sympathetic personal- 
ity. Correct conceptions of the functions of both 
the law and gospel were in his mind. The law 
must have its way with the sinful Israelites unless 
they can be made to realize the love of Jehovah 
and fulfill the condition for receiving that love 
through repentance. How tenderly he appeals 
to Israel (Ch. XIV) to repent, and return to 
God, and how he dwells and hangs upon the least 
sign of his people's repentance! But again the 



Ii8 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

memory of their sins cannot be obliterated and 
he appeals, upbraids and denounces. 

Hosea's is a great soul. The judicial side of 
his nature is not trained at the expense of the 
sympathetic. He is as passionate in his expres- 
sions of tenderness as in his denunciations of sin. 
Mighty conceptions crowd into his mind so rap- 
idly that he hasn't time to pohsh his work. His 
Prophecy contains something of the mourning 
found in Jeremiah's, yet there is at times a note 
of confidence not found in the message of the 
"weeping Prophet." 

The early date of his writings accounts for 
the large number of unusual and uncommon 
words. He writes like a nervous, excited person. 
Observe the following: — 

By swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing, and 

committing adultery, they break out.^ 
Hear the word of the Lord, ye children of Israel.^ 
Come, let us return unto the Lord: 
For He hath torn and He will heal us.* 

Figures 

Considering the length of his Prophecy, many 
figures are found. Hosea belonged to the type 
of men who would use imagery. Common, prosaic 
language was not sufficiently expressive for him. 

'Hos. IV :2. »Hos. IV :i. *Hos. VI :i. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 119 

"His style has all the restlessness and Irritability 
of hunger." ^ 



Figures of Resemblance 



SIMILE 

He has an abundance of figures of resemblance. 
What a strong full simile is the first ! — 

The number of the children of Israel shall be as the sand 
of the sea.^ 

A Prophet having the deep feeling and clear 
vision of Hosea can conceive of God punishing 
sinful nations in the manner of a lion. The As- 
syrians and Babylonians were the "lion" and 
"young lion" that did the effective work: — 

For I will be unto Ephraim as a lion, 
And as a young lion to the house of Judah.*^ 

To show the unstable quality of Judah's good- 
ness it is characterized thus : — 

For your goodness is as a morning cloud.® 

The dove is easily caught in the net while hav- 
ing its interest centered on food. It is simple and 
has no bitterness. 

^Expositors Bible, Vol. I. p. 219. 

• Hos. I :io. ' Hos. V :i^ ' Hos. VI '^. 



120 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Ephraim also is like a silly dove without heart.^ 

One of the richest figures to be found in Ho- 
sea's writings is the simile in the fourteenth chap- 
ter. This will compare favorably with any in 
the Scriptures. The dew stands for moisture, fer- 
tility and f ruitfulness ; the lily for purity, beauty 
and perfume; Lebanon for stability and strength; 
the olive tree for spiritual graces; and Lebanon 
for fragrance. It is difficult to see how the good- 
ness and tenderness of God could be stated bet- 
ter. This figure ranks Hosea as a great poet and 
a great Prophet: — 

I will be as the dew unto Israel : 

He shall grow as the lily, 

And cast forth his roots as Lebanon. 

His branches shall spread, 

And his beauty shall be as the olive tree 

And his smell as Lebanon.^*^ 

METAPHOR 

The apostasy of Israel is strongly suggested in 
the following figure: — 

He is a merchant, the balances of deceit are in his hand.^^ 
PERSONIFICATION 

As illustrations of personification we find these 
expressions : "Shall the land mourn ?" ( Ch. IV 13 ) , 

*Hos. VII:ii. "Hos. XIV:5-6. "Hos. Xllrj. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 121 

also "The wind hath bound her (Ephriam) up 
in her wings" (Ch. IV:i9). Hosea's classical 
example of personification is: — 

O death, I will be thy plagues; 

O grave, I will be thy destruction.^^ 

Figures of Contiguity 

metonymy 
Two examples of metonymy are : — 

**break the bow of Israel" (Ch. 1 :5) ; "give me my bread 
and my water" (Ch. 11:5). 

Another illustration of this class of figures is : — 

For they have sown the wind, and they shall reap the 
whirlwind.^^ 

Figures of Contrast 

interrogation 

In figures of contrast Hosea's writings do not 
abound. Some of his most startling statements, 
however, belong to this class. We notice a typ- 
ical interrogation. It is the final hope of Hosea 
for Israel. 

"Hos. XIII :i4. "Hos. VIII 7. 



122 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Ephraim shall say, what have I to do any more with 

idols? . . . 
Who is wise, and he shall understand these things? 
Prudent, and he shall know them ? ^* 

Hosea's greatest difficulty was to find words suf- 
ficiently expressive to portray the kindness and 
tenderness of God. Other Prophets accomplished 
their purposes by close reasoning and cogent logic. 
Hosea felt that his duty was to depict the great 
Father heart of God. 

His style might have been stronger if his heart 
had not been so tender. It would not allow him 
to follow his lines of reason to their ultimate con- 
clusion. He loved Israel and knew that God 
loved her. How he longed for her repentance. 
If Israel only knew God she would love Him. 

Joel 

Three facts concerning Joel are evident : uncer- 
tainty as to the time he lived, his polished, elegant 
and vivid style and his deep spirituality. 

As a man Joel was calm and serene. The 
doubts and struggles that seemed to cause the 
other Hebrew poets and Prophets so much anxiety 
did not disturb him. This may account for his 
neither having mentioned the Assyrians or Baby- 
lonians in his Prophecy nor charged the people 
with national sins.^^ 

"Hos. XIV:8-9. 

"Sam. Cox in Biblical Illustrator. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 123 

He was either the first or the last of the Proph- 
ets. If he was the earliest, the other Prophets 
imitated him, if the latest he imitated the others. 
The history of the interpretation of the book de- 
pends on whether the story of the locusts is literal 
or allegorical. The most modern scholarship 
treats the locust invasion as a real plague and 
places Joel after 500 B. C. His style being much 
more like the later Isaiah's than Hosea's also 
argues for the later period.^^ It appears that 
those who place him early in Prophetic history 
strive to make his style similar to that of Hosea 
and Isaiah, and that those who would make him 
the last of the Prophets, as Bewer, term his style 
*'clear, fluent and beautiful." ^'^ It seems to us 
that the "blending of energy and softness is the 
secret of the beauty of Joel's diction." ^^ The 
bases for this lie in the individuality and personal- 
ity of the man. 

Although there is much difference of opinion as 
to the merits of Joel's Writings, many glowing 
tributes have been paid to the man and his style. 
It is "very poetic, shows great sympathy both 
with nature and humanity. It is pure, severe, fin- 
ished, full of happy rhythms, and easy, graceful 

"Cambridge Bible, p. 24; New Century Bible, p. 3, 4, 5; 
SchaflF-Herzog Ency., Art. ''Joel." 
" J. A. Bewer, International Commentary, p. 62. 
^^Lange's Commentary, Vol. XIV, p. 5. 



124 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

terms." ^^ "The Prophecy is full of oriental sym- 
bolism and is pervaded by a tone of solemn warn- 
ing. It is gorgeous in a profusion of imagery. . . . 
The language is smooth and flowing." ^^ 

Bewer does not call him a great thinker but "a 
poet of clear and beautiful style." ^^ The lyrical 
quality of some of his lines places them among the 
best of their kind in the Old Testament. The> 
book is written in meter (hexameter, pentameter 
and tetrameter) . The one most frequently used 
is a staccato movement of the tetrameter. He 
chooses expressive words from a full, diversified 
vocabulary. 

Figures 
Figures of Resemblance 

Of striking imagery Joel has not an abundance. 
The rugged and abrupt expressions we found in 
Hosea are smoothed out. The love, grace, spirit- 
uality and scholarship of the man all contribute 
to this. 

METAPHOR 

We will examine his imagery by calling atten- 
tion to several figures. An expressive metaphor 
is found in Chapter 1 :6 : — 

"See G. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, Vol. II, p. 376. 

^"Ency. Americana, Vol. IV. 

^J. A. Bewer, International Critical Commentary, p. 68 ff. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 125 

For a nation is come upon my land, 
Strong, and without number. 
Whose teeth are the teeth of a lion. 
And he hath the cheek-teeth of a great lion. 

To show the desolate condition of the land after 
the visitation of the locusts, Joel represents the 
animals as feeling badly. Not only do the cattle 
mourn, but there is not even short grass for the 
flocks to nibble : — 

How do the beasts groan! 

The herds of cattle are perplexed. 

Because they have no pasture; 

Yea, the flocks of sheep are made desolate.^^ 

PERSONIFICATION 

Perhaps the richest figure in Joel's Prophecy 
is found in Chapter II:2i, 22. Here personifica- 
tion and metonymy are blended. The Prophet 
feels that God is greater than any destruction that 
can come upon the objects of His creation. If de- 
struction has come, God will more than compen- 
sate for this. Even while Joel speaks, he sees 
the "pastures . . . spring" and the "tree bear 
fruit":— 

Fear not, O land; be glad and rejoice: 
For the Lord will do great things. 
Be not afraid, ye beasts of the field: 

'>el I:i8. 



126 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

For the pastures of the wilderness do spring, 

For the tree beareth her fruit, 

The fig-tree and the vine do yield their strength.^* 



Figures of Contiguity 

synecdoche 

The vividness of Joel's style is seen in the fol- 
lowing imagery in which interrogation and synec- 
doche are blended: — 

Is not the meat cut off before your eyes ? ^* 
SYNECDOCHE AND METONYMY 

Another select illustration in which synecdoche 
and metonymy are mixed is found in Chapter 
III:i8:— 

And it shall come to pass in that day, 
That the mountains shall drop down new wine, 
And the hills shall flow with milk, 
And all the rivers of Judah shall flow with waters, 
And a fountain shall come forth of the house of the 
Lord. 

In this figure with the following verses the pros* 
perity and riches of the Lord's land is beautifully 
contrasted with the desolation of secular countries. 

In the Prophet Joel, sublimity, tenderness and 
spirituality are combined in beautiful proportions. 

"Joel 11:21-22. ""Joel I:i6. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 127 

He has been called "the Old Testament Prophet 
of the Holy Ghost." ^^ He has the happy faculty 
of portraying in glorious visions the blessed results 
of obedience and righteousness. 

Amos 

Israel had become sinful. Pride, injustice and 
luxury ruled. Military prowess had robbed her 
of her humility and self-indulgence increased with 
wealth. Amos came into this situation a moral 
teacher and rigorous reformer and Prophet. He 
told the plain unvarnished truth about the facts 
of Israel's sin. Unless she changed greatly her 
immorality would cause her downfall. In a cour- 
ageous manner he relentlessly denounced the no- 
bihty. G. A. Smith says, ''Into politics he brings 
facts, into religion vision," while Cornill calls him 
"one of the most wonderful appearances in the 
history of the human spirit." 

Amos is to be remembered as the first Prophet 
who committed his Prophecies to writing. Al- 
though they show cultivation and refinement their 
excellencies are probably the result of the great 
natural ability of the man combined with thorough 
consecration. 

"The style of Amos corresponds with his tem- 
perament and message." ^^ He has not been 

'' F. C. Cook, Explanatory and Critical Commentary. 
'^ Biblical Illustrator. 



128 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

spoiled by the schools nor by the prosperity and 
idolatry of the people. His heart was right, 
therefore his vision was keen. Being courageous 
and having the ability to see clearly, he states his 
message in a terse, graphic, vigorous manner. His 
sentences are "firm and sharp." His poetry is at 
times "austere and occasionally savage." ^^ In 
rugged, grand and striking sublimity he is seldom 
surpassed by any other Prophet. Like Ezekiel, 
he delights to reiterate choice and telling phrases, 
e. g. :— 



"For three transgressions and for four," "Yet have ye 
not returned to me, saith the Lord." 



Jerome terms him "rude in speech, but not in 
knowledge." If there had been a little more of 
the sympathetic element in his nature some of the 
disagreeable bluntness might have been avoided. 
His work, however, was not to be done in a 
smooth, agreeable manner. Israel needed to be 
aroused by "short threatenings, short prayers, sud- 
den exclamations, and startling questions." Al- 
though not a school man, he had read widely and 
was a "master of the language he used." A line 
literary climax in his Prophecy is Chapter III 13-8, 
and in Chapter IV, verses 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, may b^ 
found a splendid example of refrain. 

^ G. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, p. 72. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 129 

Figures 

The Prophecies of Amos abound In original, 
lofty imagery. The boldness of his style Indi- 
cates the nature of the man. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

One would scarcely find a more original and 
telling simile than: — 

And ye were as a firebrand plucked out of the burning.^^ 

Figures of Contiguity 

metonymy 

In the following figure the asperity and impa- 
tience of the Prophet are evident. The term 
"kine" Is suggestive of the weaknesses of the 
women of Samaria: — 

Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, that are in the moun- 
tains of Samaria.^^ 

A well-known metonymy Is that concerning the 
plumb-line. The inhabitants of Israel are all to 
be tried by the same rule : — 

^AmosIV:ii. ^Amos IV :i. 



130 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Then said the Lord, 

Behold, I will set a plumb-line in the midst of my people 

Israel : 
I will not again pass by them any more : 
And the high places of Isaac shall be desolate, 
And the sanctuaries of Israel shall be laid waste.^'' 

Amos' stern denunciation of the vices and lux- 
uriousness of the rich Israelites is portrayed in 
the following figure of contiguity: — 

And I will smite the winter-house with the summer- 
house; 
And the houses of ivory shall perish, 
And the great houses shall have an end, saith the Lord.^^ 

Figures of Contrast 

^ interrogation 

In the following interrogation Amos suggests in 
his own startling manner that all effects have 
causes. He is justifying himself for uttering 
Prophecies concerning Israel: — 

Can two walk together, except they be agreed ? 
Will a lion roar in the forest, when he hath no prey? 
Will a young lion cry out of his den, if he hath taken 

nothing ? 
Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where no gin is 

for him ? 
Shall one take up a snare from the earth, and have taken 

nothing at all? 
»" Amos VII :8, 9. "" Amos III :i 5. 



Hosea, Joel and Amos 131 

Shall a trumpet be blown in the city, and the people not 
be afraid? 

Shall there be evil in a city, and the Lord hath not done 

it? 22 

Unlike Hosea, Amos' tenderness of heart did 
not affect his style. When occasions demanded 
it, he told truths concerning the sinfulness of the 
people and the righteousness of God. Jehovah 
could be satisfied only with spiritual sacrifices. 
Though such teaching might antagonize the Is- 
raelites, it was for their good. 

Amos exhibits a mastery of Hebrew expression. 
Being a careful observer of social and political 
life, he had a message, which is a prime requisite 
for a good style. 

^ Amos 111:3-6. 



CHAPTER VIII 

obadiah, jonah, micah and nahum 

Obadiah 

A BOOK with only twenty-one verses must 
be remarkable in some particular to have 
withstood the ravages of time and to have ob- 
tained a place in the Scripture Canon. It deals 
only with the "doom upon Edom and exultation 
in its overthrow." "There is no spiritual mes- 
sage," "no word of sin or righteousness, or 
mercy." ^ It contains no allusion to the descent 
of the author, his birth-place or fortune. There 
is much dispute concerning the time of the 
Prophet; some putting him early and others late. 
Obadiah had but one purpose and his severely 
plain but energetic diction is in harmony with it. 
The "graphic descriptions," "striking pictures," 
"quick exclamations" and "impassioned warnings 
throbbing with anger and sorrow" ^ indicate the 
strongly passionate nature of the man. The sec- 
ond part of the Prophecy (Vers. 10-21) is not as 

''Expositors Bible (1903), "Minor Prophets," Vol. II, p. 178. 
'J. A. Bewer, International Critical Commentary, p. 13. 

132 



Ohadiahj Jonah, Mioah and Nahum 133 

forceful as the first (Vers. 1-9), although the 
words are full of meaning. His few words sug- 
gest many thoughts and are a memorable rebuke 
to fraternal hardness of heart." ^ 

The language of the book is simple, pure and 
idiomatic. It is never monotonous and is often 
poetic. The arrangement is good and a sequence 
of thought runs through the whole. 

Figures 

A few figures will show Obadiah's facility In 
imagery. 

An excellent example of synecdoche is : — 

They that eat thy bread have laid a wound under thee: 
There is none understanding in him.* 

To show the completeness of the fall of Edom, 
a telling interrogation is used : — 

If thieves come to thee, if robbers by night (how art 

thou cut off!) 
Would they not have stolen until they had enough? 
If the grape gatherers came to thee, 
Would they not leave some grapes ? ^ 

The Prophecy is somewhat ambiguous, for the 
writer undertakes to handle a question (the con- 
flict between Edom and Israel) that cannot be 

' G. Gilfillan, Bards of the Bible, p. 178. 

* Obadiah, Verse 7. ^ Obadiah, Verse 5. 



134 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

adequately treated within the small compass of 
the book. 

Jonah 

One of the most abused and misunderstood 
books of the Bible is that of the Prophet Jonah. 
The reason may be that it contains so much that 
is distasteful to modern life. In every age there 
have been people who wanted to get away from 
duty and God; who could see nothing beyond their 
own narrow sphere ; who cared but little whether 
the world is saved or not; who could see no good- 
ness in any people that didn't belong to their sect; 
who needed to be taught concerning the humanity 
of God. 

For a book to have been written before the 
time of Christ which has the originality of thought 
and breadth of conception exhibited here, is little 
less than marvelous. Jewish legalism and big- 
otry receive a telling blow in this Prophecy. We 
get the first intimation that the soul of the Gentile 
as well as that of the Jew may be saved — ^that 
God is no respecter of persons. The missionary 
idea is taught as plainly as anywhere else in the 
Bible. Another lesson is that nothing will broaden 
a person so much as working for God. 

Although the book contains but little true 
poetry and few figures, it is interesting from the 
literary viewpoint. Every word is suggestive and 



Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum 135 

is freighted with meaning. In directness and 
swiftness of execution the Prophecy reminds us 
of the book of Job. 

The style of the book belongs to the later He- 
brew. This may account for its finished character. 

Figures 

A common figure of personification is found in 
Chapter I:i5 : — 

The sea ceased from her raging. 

The book contains several rather prosaic inter- 
rogations and closes with one of the best. 

The writer of the book of Jonah is a word- 
painter of extraordinary ability. How rapidly the 
pictures pass before us. The fleeing man, the 
storm, the fish, the repentant city, and the gourd. 
The Book is a constant rebuke to narrowness and 
contains many well-taught lessons. 

MiCAH 

Micah's is one of the truly great minor Prophe- 
cies. A younger contemporary of Isaiah, Micah 
is only partially eclipsed by this prince of Proph- 
ets. The problems for the Prophet in Micah's 
time were the same as those in Isaiah's. He 
faced them in a manner which indicated that he 



136 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

had all the qualities of the true Prophet — per- 
sonality, spirituality, courage, faithfulness and 
vision. 

Two parties in Jerusalem were proving the 
weakness of King Hezekiah. If Micah had been 
so disposed, he might have played a political role 
similar to that of Isaiah. He didn't do this, how- 
ever, preferring to confine his labors entirely to 
the realm of the ethical and religious. Some- 
thing must be done to correct the conception that 
the people have of God. Through contact with 
worldly powers God's people were becoming com- 
mercial. Power was more important than char- 
acter and ritual was taking the place of spiritual- 
ity. With the other Prophets, Micah seeks to 
elevate the idea of God, knowing that this is the 
best way to raise the standard of life. 

Two facts lent strength and gave breadth to 
Micah's labors : First, he understood the common 
people and their needs, and was their champion. 
Second, his nature was comprehensive; *'he had 
Amos' passion for justice with Hosea's heart of 
love." ^ To serve his country and his God well 
was Micah's highest ambition, and he allowed no 
seeming worldly good to stand in the way of its 
attainment. He was brave, and the story of his 
fearlessness lived on (Jer. XXVI:i7-i9), a "bea- 

'J. M. P. Smith, International Critical Commentary, p. 18. 



Ohadiah, Jonah, Mioaih and Nahum 137 

con light to check the vicious and cheer the 
brave." ' 

The style of Micah is also the delight of lovers 
of literature. His vocabulary is rich and com- 
plete while condensation of language, force and 
picturesqueness with deep feeling and logical de- 
velopment may be noticed everywhere. In his 
writings Micah is not governed by formal rules. 
He is too energetic, impulsive and excitable. The 
rugged and abrupt character of his message is 
greatly modified by his "plastic choice of words," 
and many artistic turns of expression. The plan 
of his discourses is easily discovered, showing 
symmetry and regularity. 

Figures 

We can easily conceive how a person of Micah's 
temperament would receive pleasure from the use 
of figures. The character of the man is revealed 
in his many expressions noted for fine poetry, 
rugged majesty and lofty spirituality. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

To indicate the utter desolation of Samaria the 
Prophet uses the following simile: — 

' New Century Bible, "Minor Prophets," p. 225. 



138 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Therefore I will make Samaria as an heap of the fields 
And as plantings of a vineyard.® 

A richer simile which reminds one of the lan- 
guage and spirit of Hosea is: — 

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many 

people 
As a dew from the Lord, 
As the showers upon the grass, 
That tarrieth not for man. 
Nor waiteth for the sons of men. 
And the remnant of Jacob shall be among the 
Gentiles in the midst of many people 
As a lion among the beasts of the forest. 
As a young lion among the flocks of sheep.^ 

A pointed simile is : — 

The best of them is as a brier.^*^ 

Whether the briers symbolize things that are 
harsh, catching and holding all that pass by, or 
what is worthless, the figure thoroughly accom- 
plishes its purpose. 

METAPHOR 

An expressive metaphor is: — "I 

For I will make thine horn iron, 
And I will make thy hoofs brass.^^ 

«Micah 1:6. 'Micah ¥.7, 8. "Micah VII 4. 

"Micah IV:i3 



Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum 139 

To teach a characteristic of the coming Prince 
of Peace ( reminding us of Isaiah) he writes: — 

And this man shall be the peace.^^ 

Micah has something of the vision of Isaiah 
concerning the coming Redeemer. To banish dis- 
tress and give gladness and true discernment he 
says : — 



When I sit in darkness, the Lord shall be a light unto 
me.^^ 



Figures of Contiguity 

metonymy 

The boldness of Micah's style may be seen in 
the second verse of the first chapter. He feels 
that his utterances should command the attention 
of the earth. The way Israel listens and obeys 
will have much to do with the future of the king- 
dom of God. Hence he says in bold metonymy: — 

Hear, all ye people; 

Hearken, O earth, and all that therein is.^* 

With some of the other Prophets he bewails 
the fact that Israel has not repented of her sins. 

"Micah V:5. "Micah VII :8. "Micah 1:2. 



140 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

He feels that the day of grace is past, hence he 
says : — 

For her wound is uncurable.^^ 

The officials and people in authority have not 
paid sufficient attention to Israel's condition, so 
he admonishes them: — 

Hear, I pray you, O heads of Jacob, 
And ye princes of the house of Israel.^® 

The following metonymy may refer to a vil- 
lage near Bethlehem as the probable birthplace 
of the coming Messiah, or to the fact that royal 
power shall be restored to Jerusalem : — 

And thou, O tower of the flock. 

The stronghold of the daughter of Zion, 

Unto thee shall it come, even the first dominion.^^ 

To make a deeper impression if possible upon 
the entire people he uses these words : — 

The Lord's voice crieth unto the city.^® 
A figure suggesting caution: — 

Keep the doors of thy mouth from her that lieth in thy 
bosom.^^ 

"Micah 1:9. "Micah III:i. "MicahIV:8. ''MicahVI:9. 
"Micah VII :5. 



Ohadiah, Jonah, Mic^k and Nahum 141 

A beautiful and comforting metonymy is : — 

Feed thy people with thy rod, the flock of thine heri- 
tage.2o 

APOSTROPHE 

As an example of apostrophe the following is 
one of the best : — 

Hear ye, O mountains, the Lord's controversy, 
And ye strong foundations of the earth.^^ 

Figures of Contrast 

interrogation 

To show that mere quantity and sacrifice do 
not please God, but rather the devotion of the 
heart, the Prophet uses the following figure — a 
blending of interrogation and hyperbole : — 

Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams, 
Or with ten thousands of rivers of oil? 
Shall I give my firstborn for my transgression, 
The fruit of my body for the sin of my soul? ^^ 

Hardly too much praise can be given to Micah's 
literary style. He is a "worthy companion of 
Isaiah." In the plan, proportion and symmetry 
of his Prophecy, he is ideal. The last two chap- 

'" Micah VII :i4. " Micah VI :2. ^ Micah VI 7. 



142 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

ters contain some of the finest passages in the 
Bible. 

Nahum 

This Prophecy stands for intensity, but not for 
breadth. The heinousness of Nineveh's sin has 
seized the soul of the Prophet and he can think 
of but little else. In the first chapter he speaks 
in a general way of God's judgments on the 
world. In the following he discourses to Nineveh 
alone and seems to triumph and exult over her 
fall. J. M. P. Smith ^^ calls him "narrow and 
shallow" and G. A. Smith says, "A worse Prophet 
than Zephaniah with less conscience and less in- 
sight." ^^ He forgets the sins of his own people 
and makes no mention of repentance. Unlike 
Hosea, he paints only the jealous and avenging 
attributes of God. 

The remarkable element in the book is the style 
of the writer. His Prophecy is one concentrated 
shout possessing unity of subject and design. Orig- 
inality, vivacity, fancy and realism are a few of 
the characteristics of the impassioned oratory so 
evident everywhere. 

The language is strong and brilliant, forcible 
and graphic. Other Prophets uttered great moral 
and homiletical truths, but not Nahum. He even 

"J. M. P. Smith, International Critical Commentary, p. 281. 
"Expositors Bible, "Minor Prophets," p. 88. 



Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum 143 

lays aside particles and not a single unnecessary 
word is allowed to interfere with the purpose of 
the work, to grip and influence the reader, who 
is persuaded that the transactions are actually 
taking place before his face. 

Bishop Lowth says, "Of all the Minor Proph- 
ets none seems to reach the sublimity, the fire and 
the daring spirit of Nahum." -^ As a poet he is 
of the first order. Archaic and sonorous forms 
are frequent and the lines are short and quick.^^ 
Nineveh must fall amid pomp and poetry. 

Figures 

A slight study of the Prophecy will convince 
one that its author is no novice in the use of image- 
ry. Every figure has point and adds strength 
to the whole. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

To impress upon the Ninevites their hopeless- 
ness, he says concerning the chariots of the en- 
emy: — 

They shall seem like torches, 

They shall run like the lightnings.^^ 

^Hastings' Bible Dictionary-, Vol. Ill, p. 476. 
^G. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, ''Minor Prophets," Vol. II, 
p. 88. =^ Nahum 11:4. 



144 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

To teach the contaminating influences of Nine- 
veh the Prophet says: — 

But Nineveh is of old hke a pool of water.^® 

The ease with which Nineveh may be destroyed 
is thus stated: — 

All thy strongholds shall be like fig-trees with the first 
ripe figs.^^ 

An original figure is the following which teaches 
the impotency and uselessness of Assyrian officers 
in the day of calamity: — 

Thy crowned are as the locusts, and thy captains as the 
great grasshoppers.^^ 

In all these figures Nahum '^sticks to his text" 
that Nineveh must fall and be utterly ruined. 



METAPHOR 

In the following metaphor Nahum seeks to im- 
press the truth that those who trust in God need 
not fear Him — only His enemies: — 

The Lord is good, a stronghold in the day of trouble.^^ 
'^Nah. 11:8. =*Nah. III:i2. ""Nah. Illriy. ''Nah. 1:7. 



Obadiah, Jonah, Micah and Nahum 145 
PERSONIFICATION 

The following personification has the manifest 
object of bringing terror and dismay to the inhab- 
itants of Nineveh by impressing on their minds the 
number of the besiegers: — 

The chariots shall rage in the streets.^^ 

Figures of Contiguity 
hyperbole 

Again the Prophet seeks to discourage the Nin- 
evites and make their overthrow imminent. This 
time, however, he uses hyperbole: — 

And there is none end of their corpses.^^ 

Figures of Contrast 

interrogation 

To impress the severity of Jehovah the strik- 
ing interrogation is used: — 

Who can stand before his indignation ? 

And who can abide in the fierceness of his anger? ^* 

The style of Nahum is narrow and pointed. He 
feels deeply that Nineveh must be overthrown. 
This thought he seeks to have not only the Nin- 
evites but everybody else believe. 

"Nah. II 4. ^Nah. 111:3. ""Nah. 1:6. 



CHAPTER IX 

HABAKKUK, ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, 
MALACHI 

Habakkuk 

HABAKKUK prophesied about 600 B. C. 
He marks the beginning of a new school 
of religion in Israel. Other Prophets addressed 
Israel on behalf of God; he speaks to God on 
behalf of Israel. They were so exercised over 
Israel's sin they pronounced dooms and pro- 
claimed an offer of Grace. ^ Habakkuk wanted 
to know why God permitted tyranny and wrong. 
He apparently failed to see that He could bring 
good out of evil. The earlier Prophets attack 
sin while he deals with life. They are negative 
while he is positive. The distinctive teaching of 
the book is "the just shall live by his faith" (Ch. 

11:4). 

Habakkuk's motto seems to have been, "Not 
how much but how well." This noble, daring 
spirit proved himself a master of everything he 

* See G. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, "Minor Prophets," Vol. 
II, p. 130. 

146 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 147 

touched. When he cries to God, the Almighty 
answers in no uncertain manner. His command 
of language is excellent. Both his thought and 
expression are poetic. 

His style is the embodiment of boldness, sub- 
limity and majesty. Here we find some of the 
finest parallelisms. "It is impossible in transla- 
tion to reproduce the abounding alliterations of 
the original or the prevailing poetic measure con- 
sisting of three principal words in a line." ^ There 
is also the dramatic element in the questioning 
and complaining of man and the threatening an- 
swers of God. 

Some have held that from a literary point of 
view Habakkuk was dependent on Isaiah and had 
a close affinity with him.^ Others maintain that 
his words are rare and original and that he Is 
independent of earlier models.* Probably the 
poetic soul of the man fed on and assimilated 
everything good that he could find. Hence when 
he wrote his style was rich and elegant. 

Figures 

A man of Habakkuk's temperament could not 
be unpoetic if he would. Words and Imagery in 
his soul struggle for utterance. His work is to 

^W. H. Ward, International Critical Commentary, p. 5 ff. 

^Ency. Biblica, Vol. II, Art. ^ "Habakkuk." 

* Schaff-Herzog Ency. of Religious Knowledge, Vol. V. ^ 



148 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

choose the best.. Chronology, geography and na- 
ture are all placed under tribute to serve his lofty 
purpose. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

The first simile reminds us of Jeremiah who 
prefers the eagle in figures of comparison: — 

They shall fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat.® 

To show the seeming helplessness of the people 
and to strengthen his remonstrance in their behalf, 
he compares them to fish : — 

And makest man as the fishes of the sea.^ 

A vigorous and expressive simile is : — 

Who enlargeth his desire as hell, 

And is as death and cannot be satisfied.'' 

As we progress in the book the figures become 
richer : — 

And his brightness was as the light.® 

To show his confidence in God, how He will 
make His people superior to their enemies, he 
uses the figure: — 

And he will make my feet like hinds' feet.^ 

"Hab. 1:8. ' 'Hab. 11:5. »Hab. Illrig. 

•Hab. 1:14. 'Hab. 111:4. 



Habakkuk — Malachi 149 



METAPHOR 

A choice metaphor that shows the writer's ac- 
quaintance with the Psalms is : — 

The Lord God is my strength.^° 
PERSONIFICATION 

Habakkuk excels in personification. To show 
the horror and wrong of the Chaldean's oppres- 
sion he pictures inanimate things as crying out:- — 

For the stone shall cry out of the wall, 

And the beam out of the timber shall answer it.^^ 

No more beautiful imagery can be found 
than : — 

The perpetual hills did bow.^^ 

It Is figures like the following that cause De- 
lltzsch to say concerning the entire Prophecy, ^'It 
is classical throughout, full of rare and select 
words and turns, which are to some extent exclu- 
sively his own, whilst his view and mode of pres- 
entation bear the seal of independent force and 
finished beauty. Notwithstanding the violent rush 
and lofty soaring of his thoughts his Prophecy 
forms a finely organized and artistically rounded 
whole." 13 

"Hab. 111:19. "Hab. II:ii. " Hab. 111:6. 

**Lange's Commentary, "Minor Prophets," p. 3. 



150 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

The mountains saw thee, and they trembled; 
The overflowing of the water passed by: 
The deep uttered his voice, 
And lifted up his hands on high.^^ 

Figures of Contiguity 



METONYMY 

In ''transgresseth by wine" (Ch. 11:5), ^^^ 
"buildeth a town with blood" (Ch. II:i2), the 
writer shows his command of metonymy. 

Figures of Contrast 

EPIGRAM 

A complete study of Habakkuk's style cannot 
be made without referring to epigram. Two 
illustrations of this have become proverbs; the 
one secular, the other religious : — 

That he may run that readeth it.^^ 
But the just shall live by his faith.^® 

This book is as fine in diction and style as any 
of the other Prophecies. The final ode will not 
suffer by comparison with the best Psalms. 

Zephaniah 

Zephaniah came of royal blood but did not in- 
herit excellent literary ability. Other Prophets 

"Hab. III:io. "Hab. 11:2. "Hab. 11:4. 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 151 

are noticeable for some great outstanding quality. 
Zephaniah possesses neither a great imagination 
nor a consuming love for humanity.^ ^ 

He was the legitimate successor of Amos, Ho- 
sea and Isaiah. They had plead, but now the 
evil must be separated from the good, and 
Zephaniah, by his insistence on "The Day of the 
Lord," did his part fully. George Adam Smith 
places him and his message in an odious light. 
He says, ^^ "There is no hotter book in the Old 
Testament; neither dew nor grass nor tree lives 
in it, but it is everywhere fire, smoke and dark- 
ness, drifting chaff, ruins, nettles, salt-pits and 
owl and ravens looking from windows of desolate 
palaces." 

His Prophecy is deserving of credit for the fol- 
lowing reasons: (i) It gives a good statement 
of the social conditions in the years preceding the 
exile. (2) It is pervaded by a distinct and pro- 
found ethical and moral tone; (3) He is among 
the first to announce a universal judgment. 

There is disagreement as to the value of his 
style. Hastings says^^ that "on the whole It is 
clear and forceful with several striking figures." 
Another writer claims that his work is largely bor- 



" See S. R. Driver's New Century Bible, "Minor Prophets," 
p. 104 ff. 

'*G. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, "Minor Prophets," Vol. II, 
p. 48. 

"Hastings' Bible Dictionary, p. 976. 



152 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

rowed.^^ There are, however, remarkable passages 
in his Propheqr, e.g. : "I will search Jerusalem with 
candles" (Ch. 1 112). The description of the day 
of the Lord has also appealed to many people : — 

That day is a day of wrath, 
A day of trouble and distress, 
A day of wasteness and desolation, 
A day of darkness and gloominess, 
A day of clouds and thick darkness, 
A day of the trumpet and alarm 
Against the fenced cities, and against the high 
towers.^^ 



Figures 
METAPHOR 

Chapter III:ii-i3 has been regarded as very 
beautiful, also the closing passage. Chapter III: 
14-20. A significant metaphor is: — 

Her princes within her are roaring lions ; 
Her judges are evening wolves.^^ 

If Zephaniah had been positive rather than 
negative, humble instead of austere, his useful- 
ness would have been greatly augmented. As it 
is, he faithfully warned a thoughtless people and 
brought to the notice of the world for all time the 
idea of a universal judgment. 

Ency. Biblica, Vol. 11. ''Zeph. I:is-i6. ="Zeph. 111:3. 



to 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 1 5 3 

Haggai 

Born In Babylon in the time of the Captivity, 
Haggai was the first to prophesy after the Re- 
turn.^^ He was the man of the hour because he 
stood for the performance of duty rather than 
the attainment of fame. He was a success in that 
he saw the accomplishment of what he under- 
took. Unless the temple had been rebuilt the 
continuity of the religion of Israel could not have 
been maintained. Haggai saw this and acted 
accordingly. His command to rebuild moved the 
hearts of the people and they put their convictions 
into action. 

The rebuilding of the temple Is the burden of 
his Prophecy. He announces, however, the great 
ethical principle that evil is more infectious than 
holiness, and in his final prediction foreshadows 
the establishment of the Messianic Kingdom. 

The style of Haggai does not compare favor- 
ably with that of the other Prophets. Some have 
excused its dullness by maintaining that his mes- 
sages, as we have them, are only the outlines of 
original utterances which have not been revised 
by some later scholar. There are a few telling 
passages: — 

Ye have sown much, and bring in little; 
Ye eat, but ye have not enough; 

" See Ency. Americana, Vol. VIII. 



154 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Ye drink, but ye are not filled with drink ; 
Ye clothe you, but there is none warm; 
And he that earneth wages, earneth wages to put 
it into a bag with holes.^* 

As a whole, the style of Haggai Is prosaic. It 
may be characterized as weak in expression with 
too frequent repetitions. He lacked imagination 
and poetical power. 

Figures 

Few figures of speech are found in his message. 
He is partial to interrogation and seeks to give 
energy to his addresses by this figure chiefly. 

SIMILE 

The signet-ring among the Orientals signified 
value. Hence the following simile has a special 
meaning: — 

And will make thee as a signet.^^ 

METONYMY 
Metonymy is found in Chapter 11:21 : — 
I will shake the heavens and the earth. 

Some have thought that this figure points to 
the coming of the Messiah and the establishment 

=^ Haggai, 1:6. ^^'^Hag. 11:23- 



Habakkuk — Malachi 155 

of His kingdom. Great agitation accompanied 
the giving of the law on Sinai and the sending of 
the plagues to the Egyptians. The next "shak- 
ing" will occur during the reign of the Messiah 
under the spiritual dispensation. 

INTERROGATION 

Hoping to stir the pride of the people with 
regard to the house of worship Haggai breaks 
forth in the following interrogation: — 

Is it time for you, O ye, to dwell in your ceiled houses, 
And this house lie waste ? ^^ 

As if he had seen the first temple, ^^ he says : — 

Who is left among you that saw this house in her first 

glory? 
And how do ye see it now? 
Is it not in your eyes in comparison of it as nothing?^® 

A brief but suggestive interrogation is found 
in Chapter 11:19. As an incentive to work Hag- 
gai promises material prosperity: — 

Is the seed yet in the barn? 

Yea, as yet the vine, and the fig-tree, and the pomegranate, 

and the olive tree, have not brought forth : 
From this day will I bless you. 

'^^ Hag. 1:4. 

"Ewald infers from Chapter 11:3 that he had seen the first 
temple. ^ Hag. 11:3. 



156 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Haggai aimed at results and obtained them. 
Simple and plain speech accomplished his pur- 
poses. That was all he wished. He, with Zech- 
ariah, realized that the coming of the Lord was 
soon to take place. He sought to keep this ex- 
pectation before the people. 

Zechariah 

Zechariah was a man of influence and a leader 
of the people and a true Prophet. Simple and 
practical in his life, he cared nothing for the repu- 
tation of originality but was anxious about his 
reception as a Prophet. 

In conjunction with Haggai he played an im- 
portant part in reviving the faith of the discour- 
aged remnant of God's people. They not only 
succeeded in getting the temple rebuilt, but also 
had an important place in beginning its liturgical 
services. Two characteristics of the Prophecy are 
visions ^^ and angelology.^^ 

Zechariah gives a large place to the Spirit and 
His work. The Golden Age will come when man 
cooperates with God by obeying the promptings of 
the Spirit. 

" Moulton says, "The seven fold vision of Zechariah is be- 
yond any Prophecy of the Old Testament in the demand* it 
makes upon the imaginative powers." "Short Introduction to 
Literature of Bible," p, 308. (1901.) 

*"The belief in Angels received a decided impetus during 
the exile. Zechariah introduces orders and ranks among them. 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 1 5 7 

There is such a marked difference in style be- 
tween the first eight chapters and the remainder 
of the book that many critics hold that at least 
two men must have written it. In general, it may 
be said that the visions contain the prose, and 
the Prophecy the poetry of the book. The style 
of the first division shows individuality, unity and 
sequence. These chapters "are made up of three 
Prophecies. The first is a general manifesto of 
this Prophet's message. The third is an elab- 
orate response to a formal inquiry on the sub- 
ject of fast days. Between these is found a 
Prophetic composition of great literary impor- 
tance.'' ^^ That of the second division is more 
direct, purer, softer and richer. Chapters IX-XI 
contain as fine passages as are found in Hebrew 
poetry. The apocalyptic style which has been 
noticed in Daniel was a favorite with Zechariah. 
This may be a reason why his style is considered 
involved and redundant and why Lowth says of 
Zechariah, ''who of all is perhaps the most ob- 



scure." 



Figures 

There is a variety and richness of imagery 
found here as the figures will indicate. To show 
that mere wordly wisdom is ineffectual, the 
Prophet says: — 

"^ Moulton's "Short Introduction to Literature of Bible," p. 308. 



158 Literary Style of the Prophecies 
Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

And Tyrus did build herself a stronghold, 

And heaped up silver as the dust, 

And fine gold as the mire of the streets.^^ 

To suggest the unbounded success of God's 
people, Zechariah uses another effective simile : — 

And they shall drink and make a noise as through wine; 
And they shall be filled like bowls, and as the corners of 
the altar.^^ 

To continue the idea of God's care and bless- 
ing, the Prophet says: — 

And the Lord, their God, shall save them in that day as 

the flock of his people : 
For they shall be as the stones of a crown, lifted up as an 

ensign upon his land.^* 

To indicate the coming power of Judah and to 
show how easy and complete shall be her vic- 
tories, we have another simile : — 

In that day will I make the governors of Judah like a 

hearth of fire among the wood, 
And like a torch of fire in a sheaf.^^ 



"Zech. IX :3. ''Ztch. IXrif. "Zech. IX:i6. 

"Zech. XII :6. 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 159 

A beautiful simile showing what tribulation 
does for Christians is : — 

And I will bring the third part through the fire, 
And will refine them as silver is refined, 
And will try them as gold is tried.^^ 



METAPHOR 

A suggestive metaphor indicating how com- 
pletely and carefully God will protect Jerusalem 
and how He will manifest His glory in her is : — 

For I, saith the Lord, will be unto her a wall of fire round 

about, 
And will be the glory in the midst of her.^'' 



PERSONIFICATION 

Zecharlah is particularly felicitous In his use of 
personification. It adds greatly to the energy of 
his style. To Indicate the self-satisfied condition 
of Jerusalem the Prophet says : — 

We have walked to and fro through the earth, and, be- 
hold all the earth sitteth still and is at rest.^^ 

Although the Israelites are restored to their 
own land they are not free from trouble. Evil 
shepherds cause them to be threatened with judg- 

»" Zech. XIII '.9. " Zech. II :5. ^ Zech. I :i i. 



i6o Literary Style of the Prophecies 

merits. If the trees wail the impending calamity 
must be terrible : — 

Howl, fir tree; for the cedar is fallen; because all the 

mighty are spoiled : 
Howl, O ye oaks of Bashan ; for the forest of the vintage 

is come down.^^ 



Figures of Contiguity 

synecdoche 

God is such a good protector that even the 
Israelites in tents shall be saved. God's love is 
unchangeable for all who trust in Him. The 
following synecdoche declares this : — 

The Lord also shall save the tents of Judah first.**' 

In the "mourning of the land" we have a figure 
often used by the other Prophets. In this per- 
sonification and synecdoches are included. 

METONYMY 

Zechariah's first vision is one of encouragement. 
Zion was comforted by the rebuilding of the teni- 
ple. The metonymy is apt and appropriate : — 

And the Lord shall yet comfort Zion 
And shall yet choose Jerusalem.*^ 

■^Zech. XI :2. "Zech. XII 7. ^'Zech. 1:17. 



Hahakkuk — Malachi i6i 

The chastisement of the heathen (represented 
by Philistia) is prophesied In the next me- 
tonymy : — 

And I will take away his blood out of his mouth, 
And his abominations from between his teeth.*^ 

An oft-quoted figure is the next. It looks back 
to the Levltlcal law (see Numbers VIII -.7 and 
XIX 19) and forward to the efficacy of the blood 
of Christ (see i John 1:7). 

No better cause for shouting can be found than 
the one suggested In the following figure. With 
keen Prophetic vision Zecharlah sees the open- 
ing events of the week in which Christ was cruci- 
fied. The Import of his message Is also suggested. 
This Is another Instance in which exclamation and 
metonymy are mixed: — 

Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; 
Shout O daughter of Jerusalem: 
He Is just and having salvation; 
Lowly, and riding upon an ass. 
And upon a colt the foal of an ass."*^ 

One peculiarity of the Book of Zecharlah is 
the style of direct address. Another Is his pre- 
diction of the sanctificatlon of Israel through the 
outpouring of the Spirit. (Ch. 111:4, VI :6, Vrj- 
II, VIII:i6.i7.)4^ 

*^Zech. 1X7. *'Zech. IX 19. 

**See Ottley, "Hebrew Poets," p. 83 ff. 



i62 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Malachi 

Because the word Malachi means "my angel or 
messenger" many have concluded that no such 
man ever lived, but that the book was written by 
Ezra.*^ Notwithstanding this, we have the book 
in the Scripture Canon written about 420 B. C. 
We judge from its contents that the writer had 
an important mission which was well discharged. 
Though he was with the minority he spoke out 
faithfully against sins both of omission and com- 
mission. The earlier Prophets had denounced 
the wicked because of their sinfulness; the writer 
of Malachi denounces not only this class but also 
the pious because of their forgetfulness. He 
maintains that God is worshiped even among the 
heathen and that the reason His people are not 
blessed is that they do not put away their abuses 
and pay their religious dues.^^ 

Malachi, with the other post-exilian Prophets, 
emphasizes the ritual in worship. He insists, 
however, on the spirit of reverence and worship. 
With true Prophetic instinct he peers into the 
future and mirrors with wonderful clearness the 
coming of Christ and His forerunner (see Ch. 
III:i-4). 

*^ S. R. Driver, New Century Bible, p. 297 ; also Expositors 
Bible, Vol. II, p. 334. 
*'See J. A. Smith, Expositors Bible, p. 338, Vol. II. 



Habakkuk — Malachi 163 

The style of the book has been adversely crit- 
icized.^'^ While it is not the finest poetry, it has 
purity, earnestness and originality that command 
respect. He makes his point through logic rather 
than by appealing to the emotions. His sentences 
are so compact that in a small compass we have 
a comprehensive view of contemporary religious 
conditions. 

Other writers have been termed obscure, but 
that charge cannot justly be laid to this writer. 
He not only answers the objections of his op- 
ponents in an orderly and direct manner, but even 
raises supposed objections which he proceeds to 
refute. Because of the changes in civilization 
and in the attitude toward religious questions, the 
writer of Malachi could not employ the literary 
methods of Isaiah or Ezekiel. He must be a 
teacher. We have noted an apocalyptic trend in 
the Prophecies of Daniel and Zechariah; here, 
however, is a resemblance to the scholastics of 
the Middle Ages. "Some see in it (his style) the 
beginning of the method of exposition which 
afterwards became universal in the schools and 
synagogues of Judaism." ^^ 

^' Lowth says, "Malachi is written in a mediocre style." 
Gesenius regards him "decidedly inferior to the earlier writ- 
ers." Kohler on the other hand considers his style "forcible, 
and remarkably pure for the time." Ewald says "it is not 
lacking in smoothness and elegance." (J. P. Lange, Minor 
Prophets, Vol. XIV, p. 4, "Malachi.") 

*® Hastings' Bible Dictionary, p. 218. 



164 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Figures 

Malachi is not strong in the use of imagery. 
He employs enough, however, to indicate a many- 
sided literary ability. 

Figures of Resemblance 

SIMILE 

He indicates the refining and purifying charac- 
teristics of the coming Messiah by the use of the 
following effective simile: — 

For he is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' sope; 
And he shall sit as a refiner and purifier of silver.*^ 

Malachi has a vivid conception of the judg- 
ment — the time when the evil shall be perma- 
nently separated from the good — the former de- 
stroyed, while the latter shall prosper. In sup- 
port of that belief he says: — 

For, behold, the day cometh, that shall burn as an oven ; 
And all the proud, yea, ail that do wickedly shall be 
stubble.^o 

The same idea is continued in the following 
verse : — 

But unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of right- 
eousness arise 
With healing in his wings ; 
And he shall go forth, and grow up as calves of the stall.^^ 

""Mai. 111:2-3. ""Mai. IV :i. ''^ Mai. IV :2. 



Hahakkuk — Malachi 165 

METAPHOR 

The Idea which is couched in simile in the fore- 
going excerpt is in the same verses and the fol- 
lowing expressed in metaphor: — 

All the proud, yea and all that do wickedly shall be 
stubble.^2 

And ye shall tread down the wicked; 

For they shall be ashes under the soles of your feet.^^ 

Figures of Contiguity 
metonymy 

A reassuring promise and oft-quoted metonymy 
is: — 

Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse, 
And prove me now herewith, saith the Lord of hosts, 
If I will not open you the windows of heaven, 
And pour you out a blessing, that there shall not be room 
enough to receive it.^* 

A very comforting promise is made to God's 
faithful children. This also is in the form of 
metonymy. 

And they shall be mine, saith the Lord of Hosts, 
In that day when I make up my jewels.^^ 

""Mai. IV :i. '^Mal. IV.'s. "Mai. III:io. 

"Mai. 111:17. 



1 66 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

Figures of Contrast 
interrogation 

Malachi's favorite figure is pointed interroga- 
tion. Observe the following: — 

If then I be a father, where is mine honour? ^^ 
And if ye offer the blind for sacrifice, is it not evil? 
And if ye offer the lame and sick is it not evil ? ^^ 
Have we not all one father? 
Hath not one God created us? ^^ 
But who may abide the day of his coming? 
And who shall stand when he appeareth ? ^^ 
Will a man rob God?^<^ 

It would be difficult to write interrogations hav- 
ing more point and significance than these. It 
would also be difficult to find a book in the Old 
Testament of the size of Malachi, having a style 
so rich and so diversified. This book with the 
Prophecy of Jonah may well mark the transition 
between the Old and New Testaments. 

»" Mai. 1 :6. " Mai. 1 :8. «* Mai. II :io. 

•^Mal. 111:2. '°Mal. 111:8. 



CONCLUSION 

THE truths of the Bible have received the 
prayerful attention of the devout scholars 
of every age. Because of various linguistic and 
hermeneutical obstacles, commentators and redac- 
tors have, in some instances, complicated rather 
than clarified Biblical truths. Generally, how- 
ever, their supremely devout object to discover 
God's thought and purposes has resulted in great 
benefit to the race. 

Feeling that the truths they were chosen to in- 
terpret should be stated in an attractive form they 
have spared no pains from the rhetorical stand- 
point. On the other hand, realizing that the weal 
or woe of some or many individuals might depend 
on the interpretation of a single word, they have 
striven for the best hermeneutical standards. Be- 
ing the best from both the hterary and religious 
viewpoints, it is not surprising that so many super- 
lative statements have been made concerning the 
Book. 

The magnificent grandeur and stately, sweep- 
ing progress of the Pentateuch is replaced in the 
early historical books, by a concrete and familiar 

167 



1 68 Literary Style oj the Prophecies 

handling of the underlying principles of human- 
ity's existence and progress. During the process 
of leading His chosen people and developing a 
Hebrew nation, God is the embodiment of pa- 
tience. Often, through the mouths of His Proph- 
ets, He threatens and forgives. He is a loving 
God and must give Israel every chance to repent. 

The historical books are followed by the poet- 
ical. Here, in felicitous periods, the heights and 
depths of the soul's experiences are expressed. 
Truly, "deep calleth unto deep." Great advances 
are made in showing the comprehensiveness of 
God's love. There is no sin that God will not 
forgive. There is no stain that He will not wash 
away when proper contrition is made. In these 
books we get foretastes of truly Christian teach- 
ings. 

The Prophecies, in some respects the connect- 
ing link between what precedes them and the New 
Testament, contain the cream of all that precedes. 
From this time forth the thoughts of the people 
are not only objective but subjective. Having eyes 
and ears alert to everything that would assist theni 
in their important work, the Prophets browsed 
among the mighty truths of the Pentateuch until 
they were saturated with its spirit and teachings. 

Some of the Prophets proclaimed a universal 
salvation. They had so much of the Spirit of 
God that they could not remain narrow. They 



Conclusion 169 

indicated by word and deed that they longed for 
the realization of the Christian ideal. When God 
wished to have large religious and moral concep- 
tions clothed in attractive garb, he called an 
Isaiah. Jesus Christ, the Consummation of 
Prophecy, came when the thinking and praying 
people of the world realized that art, culture and 
philosophy could not save them. To prepare for 
His coming there must be the work and sacrifices 
of many ''John the Baptists." The Prophets did 
to a large degree this preparatory work. 

It is remarkable that some of the Prophecies 
expressed the idea that the world is arranged on 
a plan in which the salvation of the people is the 
main feature. Mighty empires totter to their 
downfall and haughty kings are dethroned because 
they are out of harmony with this plan. 

If some of the Prophecies are difficult to com- 
prehend, that is another argument in their favor. 
The Prophets were trying to Hft the people from 
a condition of spiritual infancy to one of spiritual 
manhood. By their efforts in this direction they 
have furnished the world with a valuable means 
of intellectual improvement. The most helpful 
truths of life do not lie on or near the surface. 
The effort necessary to find them furnishes the 
required mental exertion for healthy intellectual 
growth. 



170 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

We read in one place ^ the ease with which the 
avenue to divine truth may be discovered and re- 
tained. This statement was never intended to 
excuse students of the Bible from the responsi- 
bility of thinking, searching and judging. The 
Bible is not designed to minister to the lazy. It 
does, on the other hand, reward painstaking 
study. 

God might have devised a plan to give man 
lumber without his cutting it, ore without digging 
it, crops without their being planted. He did not 
do this, but rather planned for him to put forth 
the energy necessary for his own development. 
The law of labor that obtains in the physical uni- 
verse applies with equal force to the spiritual and 
intellectual realms. The Prophets by their faith- 
ful and self-sacrificing labors performed not only 
services of inestimable value to their own people, 
but also taught great ethical truths and furnished 
mental and spiritual food for all time. 

'Is. XXXV :8. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(3) The Holy Bible. An exact reprint of the Author- 
ized Version published in the year 161 1. Alfred 
Pollard, Oxford University Press, 191 1. 

(2) The Prophets of Israel, W. Robertson Smith. D. 

Appleton, 1882. 

(3) Representative Men of the Bible, Geo. Matheson. 

A. C. Armstrong, 1903. 

(i) Old Testament Prophecy, A. B. Davidson. T. & 
T. Clark, 1903. 

(3) An Inquiry into the Evidential Value of Prophecy, 
A. E. Edghill. Macmillan, 1904. 

(3) Jesus and the Prophets, C. S. MacFarland. Put- 
nam, 1905. 

(3) Essays on the Characteristics and Laws of Prophetic 
Symbols, L. I. Riickert. Translated from the Ger- 
man by B. B. Edwards. Gould, Newman & Sax- 
ton, N. Y., 1839. 

(3) Land of Israel, R. L. Stewart. Eaton & Mains, 
1889. 

(i) The Bible as Literature, S. I. Curtiss, Max Kellner, 
J. M. Whiton, Wm. H. Cobb. T. Y. Crowell, 
1896. 

(2) The Bible as English Literature, J. H. Gardiner. 
C. Scribner's Sons, 1907. 

(2) Short Introduction to Literature of the Bible, R. G. 

Moulton. D. C. Heath, 1901. 
(l) Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testa- 
ment, R. S. Driver. Scribner's, 1891. 

(3) Evolution of a Great Literature, Newton Mann. 

Jas. H. West Co., 1906. 
171 



172 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

(2) The Authorized Version of the Bible and Its In- 
fluence, A. S. Cook. Putnam, 19 10. 

(2) The Bible and English Prose Style, A. S. Cook. 

D. C. Heath, 1892. 

(3) Medieval and Modern History, P. V. N. Meyers. 

Ginn & Co., 1889. 

(2) Abnormal Psychology, I. H. Coriat. Moffat, N. Y., 

1910. 

(3) Psychology of Prophecy, J. H. Kaplan. Greenstone, 

Phila., 1908. 
(2) Metaphysics, B. P. Bowne. American Book Co., 
1889. 

(2) Bards of the Bible, Geo. Gilfillan. J. Hogg, Lon- 

don, 1850. 

(3) Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, Vol. I and H, J. G. Her- 

der. Translated from German by J. Marsh. E 
Smith, Burlington, 1833. 

(2) Psychotherapy, S. M. Dick. Published by Author. 

(2) Psychotherapeutics, A Symposium. Badger, Boston, 
1910. 

(2) Hypnotic Therapeutics, J. D. Quackenbos. Har- 
pers, 1908. 

(2) Philosophy of Rhetoric, G. Campbell. Ewer, Bos- 
ton, 1823. 

(2) Lectures on Rhetoric, H. Blair. Revised by S. 

Worcester. Cummings, Hilliard & Co., Boston, 
1826. 

(3) Practical Rhetoric, J. S. Clark. Henry Holt, 1891. 
(2) Elements of Rhetoric, A. S. Hill, Sheldon & Co., 

1886. 
(2) Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Robt. Lowth. 
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ARTICLES FROM ENCYCLOPEDIAS 

(i)(4) Encyclopedia BiBLiCA 

Macmillan, 1901. London, A. & C. Black. 



Bibliography 173 

Article, "Prophetic Literature." 

Articles on: "Amos," "Daniel," "Ezekiel," "Haggai," 
"Habakkuk," "Hosea," "Jonah," "Joel," "Jeremiah," 
"Malachi," "Nahum," "Obadiah," "Zechariah," "Zepha- 
niah." 

(i)(4) International Encyclopedia 
Dodd, Mead & Co., 1898 
Articles on: "Amos," "Haggai," "Hosea," "Joel," 
"Malachi," "Micah," "Nahum," "Zechariah." 

(i) (4) Encyclopedia Americana 

Americana Co., 1904 
Articles on: "Amos," "Hosea," "Daniel," "Isaiah," 
"Jeremiah," "Joel," "Zephaniah," "Haggai," "Habak- 
kuk," "Micah," "Nahum," "Obadiah," "Zechariah." 

(i) (4) Encyclopedia Britannica 

Cambridge, University Press, 1911. nth Edition. 
Article: "Prophecy and the Prophets." 

(i)(4) Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge 
Funk & Wagnalls, 1908 
Articles on: "Prophet," "Hebrew Language and Lit- 
erature," "Ecstasy," "Amos," "Daniel," "Ezekiel," "Ha- 
bakkuk," "Haggai," "Hosea," "Joel," "Jonah," "Mala- 
chi," "Micah," "Nahum," "Obadiah," "Zechariah." 

(i)(4) Hastings' Bible Dictionary 

Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1903 
Articles on: "Prophecy," "Amos," "Daniel," "Eze- 
kiel," "Habakkuk," "Isaiah," "Malachi," "Nahum," 
"Zephaniah." 

COMMENTARIES 

(5) (3) The Pulpit Commentary 

Kegan Paul, London, 1 887-1 893 



174 Literary Style of the Prophecies 

General Editor: Canon H. D. M. Spence, M.A. 

Exposition and Homilies by various scholars. 

''Amos," "Daniel," "Ezekiel," "Habakkuk," "Haggai," 
"Hosea," "Isaiah," "Jeremiah," "Joel," "Jonah," "Lam- 
entations," "Malachi," "Micah," "Nahum," "Obadiah," 
"Zechariah," "Zephaniah." 

(5) HOLY BIBLE WITH EXPLANATORY 
AND CRITICAL COMMENTARIES 
F. C. Cook 
J. Murray, London, 1876 
"Nahum," "Joel," "Jonah." 

(5) OLD TESTAMENT COMMENTARIES 
Dutton & Co. 
"Daniel," J. Deane; "Hosea," H. R. Reynolds and 
O. C. Whitehouse; "Haggai," A. C. Jennings; "Zech- 
araiah," W. H. Lowe. 

(5) LANGE COMMENTARY 

Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1901 
J. P. Lange, translated and enlarged by Philip Schaff in 
connection with various American scholars 
"Isaiah," "Jeremiah," "Lamentations," "Ezekiel," 
"Hosea," "Joel," "Amos," "Jonah," "Micah," "Nahum," 
"Habakkuk," "Zephaniah," "Haggai," "Zechariah," 
"Malachi." 

( 5 ) ( 3 ) INTERNATIONAL CRITICAL 
COMMENTARY 

Scribners 
"Joel," "Habakkuk," J. A. Bewer; "Obadiah," "Na^ 
hum," W. H. Ward, 191 1; "Micah," "Zephaniah," J. 
M. P. Smith; "Amos," "Hosea," W. R. Harper, 1905. 

(5) BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 

F. H. Revell 
Compiled by Joseph S. Exell 
"Isaiah," "Joel," "Amos," "Micah," "Habakkuk." 



Bibliography 175 

(i) EXPOSITOR'S BIBLE 

A. C. Armstrong, 1903 
"Judges," R. A. Watson; "Ezekiel," J. Skinner; 
"Minor Prophets," G. A. Smith; "Daniel," W. F. Far- 
rer; "Isaiah," G. A. Smith. 

(5) NEW CENTURY BIBLE 

Henrv' Trowde, N. Y. 
"Jeremiah," A. S. Peake, 1910; "Ezekiel," W. F. Loft- 
house, 1910; "Hosea," "Joel," "Amos," "Obadiah," "Jo- 
nah," ".Micah," R. F. Horton, 1904; "Nahum." "Habak- 
kuk," "Zephaniah," "Haggai," "Zechariah," "Malachi," 
R. S. Driver, 1906. 

(5) (3) CA]\IBRIDGE BIBLE 

Cambridge University- Press 
"Jeremiah and Lamentations," A. W. Streane, 1881; 
"Daniel," R. S. Driver, 1900; "Hosea," J. K. Chevne; 
"Joel," "Amos," R. S. Driver, 1898; "Haggai," "Oba- 
diah," "Jonah," T. T. Perowne. 1894; "Nahum," 
"Habakkuk," "Zephaniah," A. B. Davidson, 1896. 

(5) MODERN READER'S BIBLE 

Macmillan 
"Lamentations," "Ezekiel," R. G. Moulton, 1902. 

(5) HAND BOOK FOR BIBLE CLASSES 

Clark, Edinburgh 

"Haggai," "Zechariah," "IVIalachi," M. Dods, 1879. 

(5) "The Bock of Ezekiel." A. B. Davidson, Univer- 
sity- Press, Cambridge, 1892. 

(5) "The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel," \\Tiitehouse. 
Dent & Co., London, 1902. 

(5) ''The Book of Nahum," Paul Haupt. Johns 
Hopkins Press, 1907. 

(5) (3) THE HEBREW PROPHETS 
Potts & Co. 
"Amos," "Daniel," "Haggai," "Hosea," "Zechariah," 
R. L. Ottlev, 1898. 



INDEX 



Abraham, one of the first 
Prophets, 15. 

Agitation, deep emotion nec- 
essary to produce abiding 
literature, 46. 

Allegory, similar to meta- 
phor, 64; the parabolic, 64; 
examples of, from Isaiah, 
with comments, 64-65 ; ex- 
ample of, from Jeremiah, 
86-87; examples of, from 
Ezekiel, with comments^, 
106-108. 

Amos, marks an advance in 
Prophetic power and influ- 
ence, 23 ; personal right- 
eousness emphasized by, 23 ; 
a moral teacher, reformer 
and Prophet, 127; told 
plain truth, 127; first 
Prophet to commit Proph- 
ecies to writing, 127 ; his 
style terse, graphic and vig- 
orous, 128 ; has a grand 
striking sublimity, 128 ; his 
characteristics, 128 ; uses 
original, lofty imagery, 
129; had a message, 131; 
tenderness did not affect 
style, 131. 

Ancestry, influences literary 
product, 9. 

Angelology, dealt with in 
Prophecies of Daniel, 113. 

Antithesis, defined, 71 ; ex- 
ample of, from Isaiah, 71. 

Apocalyptic style favored by 
Zechariah, 157. 



Apostrophe, defined and dis- 
cussed, 70; example of, 
from Isaiah, 70; example 
of, from Micah, 141. 

Bacon, 10. 

Basis of work of O. T. Proph- 
ets were bed-rock princi- 
ples, revealed by God, 9. 

Beowulf, The, 42. 

Bewer, J. A., on Joel, 124. 

Bible, Truths of, sometimes 
complicated, 167; not de- 
signed to minister to the 
lazy, 170. 

Blair, H., on the metaphor, 
60; on personification, 62. 

Bowne, B. P., quoted, on the 
supernatural, 32. 

Budde, quoted, 22. 

Captivity, One good effect of, 
II. 

Carmel, Mount, 36. 

Cid,^ The, 43. 

Christ, Jesus, the consumma- 
tion of Prophecy, 169. 

Clark, J. S., on the metaphor, 
60; on antithesis, 72. 

Conditions, Various, affect 
writings, 9; political, 11. 

Consciousness, The, splitting 
of, Prof. James on, 30. 

Consecration, imperfect, cause 
of religious excitation, 32. 

Contiguity, Figures of, dis- 
cussed, 65. 



177 



178 



Index 



Contrast, Figures of, dis- 
cussed, 70. 

Cornill, on Amos, 127. 

Cream of Old Testament 
writings in the Prophecies, 
168. 

Curtiss, S. T., on Ezekiel, 100. 

Davidson, A. B., quoted, on 
"The Mind of the Proph- 
et," 27. 

Daniel, The book of, apocry- 
phal, in; his style inferior 
to other Major Prophets, 
112. 

Delitzsch on Habakkuk, 149. 

Difficulties, in the Prophecies, 
a means of growth, 169- 
170. 

Dream, The, a condition of 
receiving truth, 30; David- 
son, A. B., on, 31. 

Driver, S. R., on Isaiah's lit- 
erary style, 53. 

Ecstasy of the Prophets to be 
expected, 12; not necessary, 
however, for revelations 
from God, 28; cf. Peter, 28. 

Environment influences liter- 
ary product, 9. 

Epigram, Example of, from 
Jeremiah, 90; example of, 
from Ezekiel, no; exam- 
ple of, from Habakkuk, 150. 

Ewald on the grandeur of 
Isaiah's writings, 52; holds 
we are indebted to the Cap- 
tivity for some fine poetry, 
92; on Hosea's style, 117. 

Exclamation, discussed and 
defined, 68 ; examples of, 
from Isaiah, with com- 
ments, 68-69 ; example of, 
from Lamentations, 96-97 ; 
example of, from Ezekiel, 
US. 



Ezekiel, Early life of, 99; 
prophesied in the period of 
transition, 99 ; both Prophet 
and priest, 99 ; a potent fac- 
tor in the development of a 
spiritual Israel, 100; em- 
phasized personal religion, 
100; a student, 100; had a 
striking personality and 
polished literary style, 100 
and in; is determined yet 
sympathetic, loi ; style fig- 
urative, loi ; compared 
with Dante and E. A. Poe, 
loi ; his task disagreeable, 
102; work not comprehend- 
ed, 102; was abnormal and 
ecstatic, 102; had energy of 
character, 103 ; Prophecy 
has rich and varied vocab- 
ulary, 103 ; rich in allegory, 
107. 

Faith and obedience and true 
success, relation between, 
seen by most of the Proph- 
ets, II. 

Figures of speech, suggestions 
for, in sky, country and 
pursuits of people, 9; 
caused by capacity for deep 
feeling and violent agita- 
tion, 47; the eflFective means 
of the Prophet, 48. 

Gardiner, J. H., quoted, on 
the volition of the Prophet, 
28 ; on the intensity of the 
Hebrew nature, 34 (note). 

Geography, course in, should 
precede the study of a coun- 
try's literature, 9. 

Gilfillan, G., quoted on near- 
ness of God to Hebrew 
Prophet, 35; on the recep- 
tion of the law by Moses on 
Sinai, 38-39; on the proof 



Index 



179 



of great thoughts, 47; on 
the sublimity of the Proph- 
ecies of Isaiah, 52. 
God, walking closely with, 
kept Prophet at his great 
task, 15; his plan seen for 
spreading personal right- 
eousness, 24; prepares per- 
sonalities for doing Pro- 
phetic work, 30; effect of 
sense of immediate pres- 
ence, on Prophets, 35. 

Habakkuk marks beginning of 
a new school of religion in 
Israel, 146 ; didn't see how 
God could bring good out 
of evil, 146; his motto "Not 
how much but how well," 
146 ; style is bold, sublime 
and majestic, 147; assimi- 
lated everything good, 147; 
placed chronology, geogra- 
phy and nature under trib- 
ute, 148. 

Haggai emphasized the re- 
building of the temple, 153; 
foreshadows the establish- 
ment of the Messianic 
Kingdom, 153; Prophecy 
contains few telling pas- 
sages, 153 ; his style prosa- 
ic, 154; aimed at and ob- 
tained results, 156. 

Haven, describes hyperbole, 
69. 

Hebrew, nature, The, narrow 
but intense, 46 ; aspirations 
and emotions not too ex- 
tensive, 46. 

Hebrews susceptible to cli- 
mate and scenery, 35; an 
agricultural and nomadic 
race, 36; with them menial 
tasks do not degrade, 36; 
had leisure for meditation, 
36 ; thoroughly stirred by ex- 



traordinary occurrences, 36; 
e. g. the flood, 37; imagina- 
tion moved by solemnity of 
the temple, 37; moved by 
story of Creation, 37; 
moved by story of destruction 
of Sodom, 38; language one 
of vigor and energy, 41 ; 
not dramatic, 42; were re- 
ligious, 41 ; poetry of, es- 
sentially lyric, 42 ; charac- 
ter of, the key to their 
writings, 48. 

Herder, J. G., on "Spirit of 
Hebrew Poetry," 41 ; on 
parallelism, 43 ; on Ezekiel, 
102. 

Homes, making more impor- 
tant to early Americans 
than literature, 10. 

Hosea, early life, 116; sug- 
gests doctrines developed 
by later Prophets, 116; 
style laconic, n6; has un- 
usual style, 117; has deep 
emotionalism and fatherly 
yearning, 117; very consci- 
entious, 117; observes both 
law and gospel, 117; is just 
as well as tender, 118; sim- 
ilar to Jeremiah, 118; used 
many figures, 118. 

Hugo, Victor, on Ezekiel, 102. 

Hyperbole, defined, 69 ; few 
figures of, in Hebrew writ- 
ings, 69; example of, from 
Isaiah, 70; example of, from 
Lamentations, 97 ; example 
of, from Daniel, 115; exam- 
ple of, from Nahum, 145. 

Ideas vivified by river, lake, 
mountain, forest, threshing 
floor, stable, 9; valuable, of 
Prophets, written under 
mental and spiritual pres- 
sure, 33. 



i8o 



Index 



Idiosyncrasies, should be a 
large place for personal, in 
the make-up of the Proph- 
ets, 32. 

Individuality, Idea of, promi- 
nent in later Prophetic 
writings and in Christ's ut- 
terances, II. 

Interpretation, In Biblical, 
scholars have used best 
standards, 167. 

Interrogation, discussed, 72 ; 
examples of, from Isaiah, 
with comments, 72-74; ex- 
amples of, from Jeremiah, 
with comments, 90; ex- 
amples of, from Lamenta- 
tions, with comments, 97- 
98; example of, from Eze- 
kiel, hi; example of, from 
Hosea, 122; example of, 
from Amos, with comments, 
130-131; example of, from 
Obadiah, 133; example of, 
from Micah, 141 ; example 
of, from Nahum, 145 ; ex- 
amples of, from Haggai, 
155; example of, from Mal- 
achi, 166. 

Irony, example of, from Jere- 
miah, 91. 

Isaiah, 10; Prophecies of, 
show personal religion 
gaining ground, 23 ; Proph- 
ecies of, are a sufficient me- 
morial, 49; few data re- 
garding the man, 49; ex- 
pert in handling political 
and religious problems, 50; 
literary style, 52-54; had rich 
vocabulary, 53 ; sentence 
structure simple, 54; Proph- 
ecies excel in imagery, 
54; examples of sentence 
structure, 54 ; Prophecies 
contain every kind of fig- 
ure of speech, 55; rebukes 



formalism, 73 ; the greatest 
Hebrew Prophet, 74. 
Israel taught through two 
powerful enemies, Egypt 
and Assyria, 50; security 
and prosperity of, led to 
moral laxity and religious 
unfaithfulness, 50; needed 
the Prophets, 50. 

Jeremiah laments over Israel, 
23; on the Creation, 38; is 
blamed for unnecessary 
harshness or lack of tact, 
75 ; his task more difficult 
than Isaiah's, 75; called 
early in life, 75 ; counseled 
national subjection and de- 
manded loving kindness, jus- 
tice and purity, 76 ; was tim- 
id, 76 ; was loving, sympa- 
thetic and brotherly, 76 ; his 
denunciations were in tears, 
76 ; his faithfulness, 77 ; as 
time passed, was highly re- 
garded, 77 ; disagreement 
in estimating writings, 78 ; 
a Prophet of God first, a 
literary personage second, 
79; his Prophecies contain 
many selections of true 
poetic beauty, 80; is un- 
equaled in expressions of 
sorrow and tenderness, 80- 
81; denounces false proph- 
ets, 83 ; frequently pro- 
voked by idolatrous tenden- 
cies of Judah, 84; had keen 
sense of duty, 84; was sin- 
cere and genuine, 91. 

Jerome, on Amos, 128; on 
Hosea, 116. 

Joel, calmness of, 122; his el- 
egant, vivid style, 122-123 ; 
uncertain when he lived, 
122-123 5 his prophecy filled 
with imagery, 124; style is 



Index 



i8i 



lyrical, 124; his imagery 
not striking, 124; has com- 
bination of sublimity and 
tenderness, 126. 

Jonah, abused and misunder- 
stood, 134; shows up nar- 
rowness, bigotry and sel- 
fishness, 134; has original- 
ity of thought and breadth 
of conception, 134; has New 
Testament conceptions, 134; 
Prophecy has little true po- 
etry, 134; each word sug- 
gestive, 134; a word paint- 
er, 135- 

Judah more fortunate than Is- 
rael, 50; her religion often 
a matter of diplomacy, 50. 

King, a righteous and power- 
ful, Inspired necessary hope 
for a great literature, lo. 

Kuenen, 22. 

Lamentations, Book of and 
authorship discussed, 92 ; 
written in a kind of imper- 
fect parallelism, 92; style 
vigorous and lively, 92 ; 
many figures of speech, 93 ; 
contain poetry of pathos in 
a profusion of imagery, 
98. 

Lebanon, Mount, 36. 

Literature, a potent provoked 
by a strong national life, 9 ; 
seen in Augustan Age, 10; 
in Elizabethan age, lo; in 
history of the Hebrew peo- 
ple, 10; weak, caused by 
decline of Israel's national 
life ; e. g., the literary value 
of Haggai and Zephaniah 
hardly comparable to that of 
Isaiah and Ezekiel, 11; five 
important kinds in the 



Bible, 34; beginnings of 
every, in poetical form, 42. 

Living, a, more important and 
necessary to early Ameri- 
cans than a literature, 10. 

Locust invasion in Joel, 123. 

Longfellow, H. W., 10. 

Lowell, J. R., 10. 

Lowth, R., on Biblical liter- 
ature, 34; on "Sacred Po- 
etry of the Hebrews," 42; 
on Nahum, 143. 

Malachi had important mis- 
sion which was well dis- 
charged, 162; denounces 
forgetfulness, 162; empha- 
sized the ritual in worship, 
162; his style is pure, earn- 
est, original, logical and 
compact, 163; because of 
the generally changed atti- 
tude toward religious ques- 
tions in his time, was a 
teacher rather than a liter- 
ary artist, 163 ; had a rich 
and diversified style, 166. 

Messiah, expectation of. The, 
a potent influence in He- 
brew literature, 39; his 
coming inspired some of the 
finest poetry, 39. 

Metaphor, defined, 60; exam- 
ples of, from Isaiah, with 
comments, 60-62 ; examples 
of, from Lamentations, 94- 
95; examples of, from Eze- 
kiel, 105-106; example of, 
from Hosea, 120; example 
of, from Joel, with com- 
ments, 125 ; examples of, 
from MIcah, 139; example 
of, from Nahum, 144; ex- 
ample of, from Habakkuk, 
149 ; example of, from 
Zephaniah, 152; example 
of, from Zechariah, 159; 



l82 



Index 



example of, from Malachi, 
165. 

Metonymy, discussed and de- 
fined, 66\ examples of, 
from Isaiah, with com- 
ments, 66-68; examples of, 
from Jeremiah, with com- 
ments, 87-89; examples of, 
from Lamentations, 95-96 ; 
examples of, from Ezekiel, 
with comments, 109-110; 
example of, from Daniel, 
114; example of, from 
Amos, with comments, 129- 
130; examples of, from Mi- 
cah, with comments, 139- 
141 ; example of, from Hag- 
gai, 154; examples of, from 
Zechariah, with comments, 
160-161; examples of, from 
Malachi, 165. 

Micah, a great Prophet, 135; 
problems similar to Isa- 
iah's, 135; he faced them 
as a Prophet should, 135; 
his work entirely ethical 
and religious, 136; seeks to 
elevate the idea of God, 
136; understood the com- 
mon people, 136; style is 
rich, complete, forceful, log- 
ical and picturesque, 137; 

^ his discourses are symmet- 
rical and regular, 137; sim- 
ilar to Isaiah in literary 
style, 141. 

Mind, Conscious, 29; subcon- 
scious, 29. 

Moses, one of the first Proph- 
ets, 15. 

Motley, J. L., 10. 

Moulton, R. G., on the vision 
of Zechariah, 156 (note). 

Nahum's Prophecy stands for 
intensity, 142; paints the 
jealous attributes of God, 



142; a concentrated shout, 
142, the style vivacious, 
original and graphic, 142. 

Necromancy, used by false 
Prophet, 12. 

Nibelungenlied, 43. 

Obadiah, Prophecy of, must 
have remarkable qualities 
to have a place in the 
Scripture Canon, 132; dis- 
pute as to time of the 
Prophet, 132; style plain 
and energetic, 132; lan- 
guage pure and idiomatic, 
133; Prophecy ambiguous, 
133. 

Parallelism, a characteristic 
of Hebrew verse, 43 ; dis- 
covered by R. Lowth, 1753 ; 
illustrated, 44-5; stands for 
fulness and melody of ex- 
pression, 46. 

Personality of writers afFects 
writings, 11. 

Personification, defined, 62 ; 
its use, 62; several grades 
of, 62-63 ; examples of, 
from Isaiah, 63 ; examples 
of, from Jeremiah, 85-86; 
examples of, from Lamen- 
tations, 95; examples of, 
from Ezekiel, with com- 
ments, 106 ; examples of, 
from Hosea, 120-121 ; ex- 
ample of, from Joel, with 
comments, 125-126; exam- 
ple of, from Jonah, 135; ex- 
ample of, from Nahum, 
145; examples of, from Ha- 
bakkuk, 149; examples of, 
from Zechariah, 159-160. 

Professionalism, used by false 
Prophet, 12. 

Prophecies, the acme of Bibli- 
cal literature, 47; the Isa- 



Index 



183 



iac, the literary wonder of 
the ages, 51 ; the Isaiac, 
exhibit vigor and energy of 
style, 51-52. 

Prophet, difference between 
the true and false, 12; the 
Hebrew, growth and devel- 
opment of, occupies a 
unique place, 15; usefulness 
enhanced by communication 
of God's will, 15. 

Prophets, felt themselves 
mouth-pieces of God at an 
important epoch, 11; mental 
temperament of, 12; ele- 
ments contributing to the 
importance of their work, 
17; felt they could make no 
mistake, 18; came to have 
tremendous power, 18; men 
of highest honor, 18; re- 
frained from no word or deed 
helpful to mankind, 19; 
completely abandoned to 
God, 19; could not forget 
God's covenant with Israel, 
19; held that for Israel's 
good God wished to accom- 
plish His purposes through 
her, 20; became unpopular, 
20; adapted old truths to 
new conditions, 20; saw 
God's thought for His peo- 
ple, 21 ; kept God and His 
standards at the front, 21 ; 
eradicated heathenish con- 
ceptions from the mind of 
Israel, 21 ; an effective 
force in centralization of 
Israel's national life, 21 ; 
earlier, delivered oral mes- 
sages, later, wrote, 22; in- 
fluence and importance of 
increased until the time of 
Isaiah, 25 ; influence waned 
after work was done, 25-26 ; 
others must amplify and 



make applications of their 
teachings, 26 ; were men, 
27; dealt with Jehovah 
and His will concerning Is- 
rael, 27; compared to 
watchmen, 27 ; manifested 
all kinds of mental activi- 
ty, 31; exhibited energy 
and activity of soul and 
body, 31; handled political 
and religious problems, 50. 
Prose, Ordinary, inadequate 
for Prophet's purpose, 47. 

Quackenbos, J. D., on the 
translirainal self, 29. 

Reformation, 10. 
Renaissance, 10. 
Resemblance, Figures of, de- 
fined, 55. 

Samuel, one of the first 
Prophets, 15. 

Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia 
of Religious Knowledge, 
quoted on the influence of 
religion on the Prophets, 40. 

Schiller on Ezekiel, loi. 

Schools of the Prophets, 22. 

Seer had important place at 
time of Samuel, 16; his po- 
sition debatable, 16; in 
later monarchy almost en- 
tirely displaced by the 
Prophet, 16; difference be- 
tween Seer and Prophet, 16; 
flourished before Prophet, 
16. 

Shakespeare, 10. 

Sidney, 10. 

Simile, defined, 55; examples 
of, from Isaiah, with com- 
ments, 55-60; examples of, 
from Jeremiah, with com- 
ments, 82-84; examples of, 
from Lamentations, 93-94; 



i84 



Index 



examples of, from Ezekiel, 
with comments, 104-105 ; ex- 
amples of, from Daniel, 
114; examples of, from 
Hosea, with comments, 119- 
120; example of, from 
Amos, 129 ; examples of, 
from Micah, 138; examples 
of, from Nahum, 143-144; 
examples of, from Habak- 
kuk, 148 ; example of, from 
Haggai, 154; examples of, 

', from Zechariah, 158; ex- 
amples of, from Malachi, 
164. 

Smith, G. A., on Isaiah, 49; 
contrasts Prophecies of 
Isaiah and Jeremiah, 74. 

Smith, H. P., on Ezekiel, 99; 
on Nahum, 142; on Habak- 
kuk, 151. 

Smith, J. M. P., on Nahum, 
142. 

Smith, W. Robertson, on 
faith and obedience of a 
nation, 11. 

Sodom, story of destruction 
of, influences Hebrew 
mind, 38. 

Spenser, 10. 

Spirit, The Holy, appears as 
a permanent possession in 
the later Prophets, 24; 
His various relations 
thereto, 24; a large place 
given to, by Zechariah, 
156. 

State, the Prophetic, A. B. 
Davidson on, 29; the men- 
tal, of the Prophet com- 
pared to ours, 29; one of 
composure, 32; e.g., Moses 
and Man of Galilee. 

Supernatural, The, element in 
Prophecy, 31. 

Synecdoche, defined by Bain, 

[ 65; examples of, from Isa- 



' iah, 65 ; examples of, from 
Ezekiel, 108-109; example 
of, from Joel, 126 ; ex- 
ample of, from Obadiah, 

{ 133; example of, from Ze- 
chariah, 160. 

Style, an accommodating, yet 
progressive, in Bible, 167- 
168. 

Testament, Old, unified by an 
intense religious and ethi- 
cal element, 40. 

Themes, Common, Prophets 
thought deeply and con- 
clusively on, 35. 

Thoughts, Great, necessary to 
a great literature, 47; will 
carry figures of speech, 47. 

Transliminal self. The, J. D. 
Quackenbos on, 29. 

Trouveres and Troubadours, 
The literature of, 43. 

Unpreparedness often respon- 
sible for religious disturb- 
ances, 32. 

Visions, idea of, revived as 

Prophecy declined, 31. 
Vocabulary of Hebrews not 

large but expressive, 40; 

J. H. Gardiner quoted on, 40. 
Volition of the Prophet, J. H. 

Gardiner on, 28. 

Westcott, Bishop, on Daniel, 

113- 
Word, The, of the Lord, 

abideth forever, 46. 
World, The plan of the, for 
the salvation of the people, 
169. 
Writers, Few good, in early 

American colonies, lo. 
Writings, The, often the ba- 
rometer of the national 



Index 



185 



life of a period, 11; of 
Jeremiah reveal character 
and temperament, 77-78. 

Zechariah, a true Prophet, 
156; was simple, practical 

; and a leader, 156; helped in 
reviving the faith of 
Israel, 156; gives a large 
place to the Holy Spirit and 
His work, 156; emphasized 



visions and angelology, 
156; difference in style of 
first and last parts of the 
book, 157; has style of 
direct address, i6i. 
Zephaniah did not inherit ex- 
cellent literary ability, 150; 
emphasized "The Day of 
the Lord," 151; disagree- 
ment as to the value of his 
style, 151. 



STUDIES IN LITERATURE 



The Story of English Speech. By Charles Noble. 

Shakespeare Study Programs: The Tragedies. 
By Charlotte Porter and Helen A. Clarke. 

Shakespeare Study Programs: The Comedies. By 
Charlotte Porter and Helen A. Clarke. 

Browning Studies. By V. C. Harrington. 

Hamlet, an Ideal Prince. By A. W. Crawford. 

A History of English Literature. By Robert H. 
Fletcher. 

English Essayists. By William H. Davis. 

Present Day American Poetry, and Other Essays. 
By Harry Houston Peckham. 

A History of Italian Literature. By Florence 
Traill. 

The Reign of the Manuscript. By Perry Wayland 
Sinks. 

German Liberty Authors. By Warren Washburn 
Florer. 

The Influence of French Literature on Europe. 
By Emeline M. Jensen. 

The Novels of Ferdinand Fabre. By Ray P. Bowen. 

Life and Works of Friedrich Hebbel. By T. M. 
Campbell. 

Ibsen in Germany. By William H. Eller. 



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